Gonadal hormones and sexual differentiation of human brain and behavior

Hormones, Brain and Behavior Online

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1869-1910

  Hines, M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aggression; Androgen; Behavior; Brain; Cognition; Congenital adrenal hyperplasia; Disorder of sex development; Empathy; Estrogen; Gender identity; Gender role; Sexual differentiation; Sexual identity; Sexual orientation; Testosterone

Indexed keywords

EID: 84884781896     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-008088783-8.00059-0     Document Type: Chapter

References (303)

1. Alexander G.M., Hines M. Gender labels and play styles: Their relative contribution to children's selection of playmates. Child Development 1994, 65:869-879.
2. Alexander G.M., Peterson B.S. Testing the prenatal hormone hypothesis of tic-related disorders: Gender identity and gender role behavior. Development and Psychopathology 2004, 16:407-420.
3. Allen L.S., Gorski R.A. Sex difference in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of the human brain. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1990, 302:697-706.
4. Allen L.S., Gorski R.A. Sexual orientation and the size of the anterior commissure in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1992, 89:7199-7202.
5. Allen L.S., Hines M., Shryne J.E., Gorski R.A. Two sexually dimorphic cell groups in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience 1989, 9:497-506.
6. Allen L.S., Richey M.F., Chai Y.M., Gorski R.A. Sex differences in the corpus callosum of the living human being. Journal of Neuroscience 1991, 11:933-942.
7. Amateau S.K., McCarthy M.M. Induction of PGE2 by estradiol mediates developmental masculinization of sex behavior. Nature Neuroscience 2004, 7:643-650.
8. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR, Fourth Edition Text Revision 2000, American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric, Washington, DC.
9. Ankney C.D. Sex differences in relative brain size: The mismeasure of women too?. Intelligence 1992, 16:329-336.
10. Arnold A.P., Gorski R.A. Gonadal steroid induction of structural sex differences in the central nervous system. Annual Review of Neuroscience 1984, 7:413-442.
11. Auyeung B, Baron-Cohen S, Chapman E (in press) Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behavior in girls and in boys. Psychological Science.
12. Baker S.W., Ehrhardt A.A. Prenatal androgen, intelligence and cognitive sex differences. Sex Differences in Behavior 1974, 53-76. Wiley, New York. R.C. Friedman, R.N. Richart, R.L. Vande Wiele (Eds.).
13. Baron-Cohen S. The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Science 2002, 6:248-254.
14. Benbow C.P. Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability in intellectually talented preadolescents: Their nature, effects and possible causes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1988, 11:169-232.
15. Benbow C.P., Stanley J.C. Sex differences in mathematical reasoning ability: More facts. Science 1983, 222:1029-1031.
16. Berenbaum S.A., Hines M. Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science 1992, 3:203-206.
17. Berenbaum S.A., Resnick S.M. Early androgen effects on aggression in children and adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1997, 22:505-515.
18. Berman P.A. Are women more responsive than men to the young? A review of developmental and situational variables. Psychological Bulletin 1980, 88:668-695.
19. Bidlingmaier F., Strom T.M., Dörr G., Eisenmenger W., Knorr D. Estrone and estradiol concentrations in human ovaries, testes, and adrenals during the first two years of life. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1987, 65:862-867.
20. Bidlingmaier F., Versmold H., Knorr D. Plasma estrogens in newborns and infants. Sexual Endocrinology of the Perinatal Period 1974, 299-314. Inserm, Paris. M. Forest, J. Bertrand (Eds.).
21. Billy J.O.G., Tanfer K., Grady W.R., Klepinger D.H. The sexual behavior of men in the United States. Family Planning Perspectives 1993, 25:52-60.
22. Bishop K.M., Wahlsten D. Sex differences in the human corpus callosum: Myth or reality?. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 1997, 21:581-601.
23. Bradley S.J., Oliver G.D., Chernick A.B., Zucker K.J. Experiment of nurture: Ablatio penis at 2 months, sex reasignment at 7 months and a psychosexual follow-up in young adulthood. Pediatrics 1998, 102(1):e9.
24. Brown W.E., Kesler S.R., Eliez S., et al. Brain development in Turner syndrome: A magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research 2002, 116:187-196.
25. Brown W.M., Hines M., Fane B.A., Breedlove S.M. Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior 2002, 42:380-386.
26. Buchsbaum M.S., Henkin R.I. Perceptual abnormalities in patients with chromatin negative gonadal dysgenesis and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. International Journal of Neurosciences 1980, 11:201-209.
27. Buck J.J., Williams R.M., Hughes I.A., Acerini C.L. In-utero androgen exposure and 2nd to 4th digit length ratio - comparisons between healthy controls and females with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Human Reproduction 2003, 18:976-979.
28. Byne W., Lasco M.S., Kemether E., et al. The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: An investigation of sexual variation in volume and cell size, number and density. Brain Research 2000, 856:254-258.
29. Byne W., Parsons B. Human sexual orientation: The biological theories reappraised. Archives of General Psychiatry 1993, 50:228-239.
30. Byne W., Tobet S.A., Mattiace L.A., et al. The interstitial nuclei of the human anterior hypothalamus: An investigation of variation with sex, sexual orientation, and HIV status. Hormones and Behavior 2001, 40:86-92.
31. Cappa S.F., Guariglia C., Papagno C., et al. Patterns of lateralization and performance levels for verbal and spatial tasks in congenital androgen deficiency. Behavioural Brain Research 1988, 31:177-183.
32. Carson D.J., Okuno A., Lee P.A., Stetten G., Didolkar S.M., Migeon C.J. Amniotic fluid steroid levels: Fetuses with adrenal hyperplasia, 46,XXY fetuses, and normal fetuses. American Journal of Diseases of Children 1982, 136:218-222.
33. Channing C.P., Chacon M., Tanabe K., Gagliano P., Tildon T. Follicular fluid inhibin activity and steroid levels in ovarian tissue obtained at autopsy from human infants from 18 to 200 days of age. Fertility and Sterility 1984, 42:861-869.
34. Chapman E., Baron-Cohen S., Auyeung B., Knickmeyer R., Taylor K., Hackett G. Fetal testosterone and empathy: Evidence from the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and the 'reading the mind in the eyes' test. Social Neuroscience 2006, 1:135-148.
35. Christensen L.W., Gorski R.A. Independent masculinization of neuroendocrine systems by intracerebral implants of testosterone or estradiol in the neonatal female rat. Brain Research 1978, 146:325-340.
36. Chung W.C.J., De Vries G.J., Swaab D. Sexual differentation of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in humans may extend into adulthood. Journal of Neuroscience 2002, 22:1027-1033.
37. Clark C., KlonoffH., Hayden M. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in Turner syndrome. Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 1990, 17:140-144.
38. Clark M.M., Crews D., Galef B.G. Concentrations of sex steroid hormones in pregnant and fetal Mongolian gerbils. Physiology and Behavior 1991, 49:239-243.
39. Clark M.M., Galef B.G. Effects of intrauterine position on the behavior and genital morphology of litter-bearing rodents. Developmental Neuropsychology 1998, 14:197-211.
40. Clarke S., Kraftsik R., van der Loos H., Innocenti G.M. Forms and measures of adult and developing human corpus callosum: Is there sexual dimorphism?. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1989, 280:213-220.
41. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences 1988, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. 2nd edn.
42. Cohen-Kettenis P.T. Gender change in 46, XY persons with 5alpha-reductase-2 deficiency and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-3 deficiency. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2005, 34:399-410.
43. Collaer M.L., Geffner M., Kaufman F.R., Buckingham B., Hines M. Cognitive and behavioral characteristics of Turner syndrome: Exploring a role for ovarian hormones in female sexual differentiation. Hormones and Behavior 2002, 41:139-155.
44. Collaer M.L., Hines M. Human behavioral sex differences: A role for gonadal hormones during early development?. Psychological Bulletin 1995, 118:55-107.
45. Collaer M.L., Reimers S., Manning J. Visuospatial performance on an internet line judgment task and potential hormonal markers: Sex, sexual orientation, and 2D:4D. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2007, 36:177-192.
46. Dalton K. Antenatal progesterone and intelligence. British Journal of Psychiatry 1968, 114:1377-1382.
47. Dalton K. Prenatal progesterone and educational attainments. British Journal of Psychiatry 1976, 129:438-442.
48. de Lacoste M.C., Holloway R.L., Woodward D.J. Sex differences in the fetal human corpus callosum. Human Neurobiology 1986, 5:93-96.
49. de Lacoste-Utamsing C., Holloway R.L. Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum. Science 1982, 216:1431-1432.
50. Demeter S., Ringo J.L., Doty R.W. Morphometric analysis of the human corpus callosum and anterior commissure. Human Neurobiology 1988, 6:219-226.
51. Diamond M., Sigmundson H.K. Sex reassignment at birth: Long-term review and clinical implications. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 1997, 151:298-304.
52. Diamond M.C., Dowling G.A., Johnson R.E. Morphological cerebral cortical asymmetry in male and female rats. Experimental Neurology 1981, 71:261-268.
53. DiPietro J.A. Rough and tumble play: A function of gender. Developmental Psychology 1981, 17:50-58.
54. Dittmann R.W., Kappes M.E., Kappes M.H. Sexual behavior in adolescent and adult females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1992, 17:153-170.
55. Dittmann R.W., Kappes M.H., Kappes M.E., et al. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia I: Gender-related behavior and attitudes in female patients and sisters. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1990, 15:401-420.
56. Dubb A., Gur R.C., Avants B., Gee J. Characterization of sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum. Neuroimage 2003, 20:512-519.
57. Dunlap J.L., Gerall A.A., Carlton S.F. Evaluation of prenatal androgen and ovarian secretions on receptivity in female and male rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1978, 92:280-288.
58. Eaton W.O., Enns L.R. Sex differences in human motor activity level. Psychological Bulletin 1986, 100:19-28.
59. Ehrhardt A.A., Baker S.W. Fetal androgens, human central nervous system differentiation, and behavior sex differences. Sex Differences in Behavior 1974, 33-52. Wiley, New York. R.C. Friedman, R.M. Richart, R.L. van de Wiele (Eds.).
60. Ehrhardt A.A., Epstein R., Money J. Fetal androgens and female gender identity in the early-treated adrenogenital syndrome. Johns Hopkins Medical Journal 1968, 122:165-167.
61. Ehrhardt A.A., Grisanti G.C., Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L. Prenatal exposure to medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) in girls. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1977, 2:391-398.
62. Ehrhardt A.A., Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Rosen L.R., et al. Sexual orientation after prenatal exposure to exogenous estrogen. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1985, 14:57-77.
63. Ehrhardt A.A., Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Rosen L.R., et al. The development of gender-related behavior in females following prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES). Hormones and Behavior 1989, 23:526-541.
64. Ehrhardt A.A., Money J. Progestin-induced hermaphroditism: IQ and psychosexual identity in a study of ten girls. Journal of Sex Research 1967, 3:83-100.
65. Ekstrom R.B., French J.W., Harman H.H. Manual for Kit of Factor-Referenced Cognitive Tests 1976, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ.
66. Elster A.D., DiPersio D.A., Moody D.M. Sexual dimorphism of the human corpus callosum studied by magnetic resonance imaging: Fact, fallacy and statistical confidence. Brain Development 1990, 12:321-325.
67. Ernst M., Maheu F.S., Schroth E., et al. Amygdala function in adolescents with congenital adrenal hyperplasia: A model for the study of early steroid abnormalities. Neuropsychologia 2007, 45:2104-2113.
68. Falter C.M., Plaisted K.C., Davis G. Visuo-spatial processing in autism - testing the predictions of extreme male brain theory. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2008, 38:507-517.
69. Farah R., Reno G. Congenital absence of the penis. Journal of Urology 1972, 107:154-155.
70. Fausto-Sterling A. Myths of Gender 1992, Basic Books, New York.
71. Feingold A. Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. American Psychologist 1988, 43:95-103.
72. Feingold A (1994) Gender differences in personality: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 116: 429-256.
73. Finegan J.K., Niccols G.A., Sitarenios G. Relations between prenatal testosterone levels and cognitive abilities at 4 years. Developmental Psychology 1992, 28:1075-1089.
74. Fitch R.H., Berrebi A.S., Cowell P.E., Schrott L.M., Denenberg V.H. Corpus callosum: Effects of neonatal hormones on sexual dimorphism in the rat. Brain Research 1990, 515:111-116.
75. Fitch R.H., Cowell P.E., Schrott L.M., Denenberg V.H. Corpus callosum: Ovarian hormones and feminization. Brain Research 1991, 542(2):313-317.
76. Fitch R.H., Denenberg V.H. A role for ovarian hormones in sexual differentiation of the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1998, 21:311-352.
77. Forest M.G., Cathiard A.M., Bertrand J.A. Evidence of testicular activity in early infancy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1973, 41:751-760.
78. Frost J.A., Binder J.R., Springer J.A., et al. Language processing is strongly left lateralized in both sexes - evidence from functional MRI. Brain 1999, 122:199-208.
79. Garron D.C. Intelligence among persons with Turner's syndrome. Behavior Genetics 1977, 7:105-127.
80. Gastaud F., Bouvattier C., Duranteau L., et al. Impaired sexual and reproductive outcomes in women with classical forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2007, 92:1391-1396.
81. Gerall A.A., Dunlap J.L., Hendricks S.E. Effect of ovarian secretions on female behavior potentiality in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 1972, 82:449-465.
82. Gitau R., Adams D., Fisk N.M., Glover V. Fetal plasma testosterone correlates positively with cortisol. Archives of Disease in Childhood Fetal and Neonatal Edition 2005, 90:F166-F169.
83. Golombok S., Hines M. Sex differences in social behavior. Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development 2002, 117-136. Blackwell, Malden, MA. P.K. Smith, C.H. Hart (Eds.).
84. Good C.D., Lawrence K., Thomas N.S., et al. Dosage-sensitive X-linked locus influences the development of amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex, and fear recognition in humans. Brain 2003, 126:2431-2446.
85. Gorski R.A., Gordon J.H., Shryne J.E., Southam A.M. Evidence for a morphological sex difference within the medial preoptic area of the rat brain. Brain Research 1978, 148:333-346.
86. Gorski R.A., Harlan R.E., Jacobson C.D., Shryne J.E., Southam A.M. Evidence for the existence of a sexually dimorphic nucleus in the preoptic area of the rat. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1980, 193:529-539.
87. Goy R.W. Development of play and mounting behaviour in female rhesus virilized prenatally with esters of testosterone or dihydrotestosterone. Recent Advances in Primatology 1978, 449-462. Academic Press, New York. D.J. Chivers, J. Herbert (Eds.).
88. Goy R.W., Deputte B.L. The effects of diethylstilbestrol (DES) before birth on the development of masculine behavior in juvenile female rhesus monkeys. Hormones and Behavior 1996, 30:379-386.
89. Goy R.W., McEwen B.S. Sexual Differentiation of the Brain 1980, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
90. Grimshaw G.M., Sitarenios G., Finegan J.K. Mental rotation at 7 years: Relations with prenatal testosterone levels and spatial play experiences. Brain and Cognition 1995, 29:85-100.
91. Groner J.I., Zeigler M.M. Cloacal exstrophy. Newborn Surgery 1996, 461-465. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. P. Puri (Ed.).
92. Grumbach M.M., Hughes I.A., Conte F.A. Disorders of sex differentiation. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology 2003, 842-1002. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. 10th edn. P.R. Larsen, H.M. Kronenberg, S. Melmed, K.S. Polonsky (Eds.).
93. Grumbach M.M., Styne D.M. Puberty: Ontogeny, neuroendocrinology, physiology and disorders. Williams Textbook of Endocrinology 2003, 1115-1286. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. 10th edn. P.R. Larsen, H.M. Kronenberg, S. Melmed, K.S. Polonsky (Eds.).
94. Habib M., Gayraud D., Oliva A., Regis J., Salamon G., Khalil R. Effects of handedness and sex on the morphology of the corpus callosum: A study with brain magnetic resonance imaging. Brain and Cognition 1991, 16:41-61.
95. Haier R.J., Benbow C.P. Sex differences and lateralization in temporal lobe glucose metabolism during mathematical reasoning. Developmental Neuropsychology 1995, 11:405-414.
96. Haier R.J., Jung R.E., Yeo R.A., Head K., Alkire M.T. The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: Sex matters. Neuroimage 2005, 25:320-327.
97. Halari R., Sharma T., Hines M., Andrew C., Simmons A., Kumari V. Comparable fMRI activity with differential behavioural performance on mental rotation and overt verbal fluency tasks in healthy men and women. Experimental Brain Research 2005, 169:1-14.
98. Hall C.M., Jones J.A., Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., et al. Behavioral and physical masculinization are related to genotype in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2004, 89:419-424.
99. Halpern D.F. Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities 2000, Erlbaum. Hartmann, Mahwah, NJ. 3rd edn.
100. Halpern D.F., Benbow C.P., Geary D.C., Gur R.C., Hyde J.S., Gernsbacher M.A. The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 2007, 8:1-51.
101. Hampson E., Rovet J., Altmann D. Spatial reasoning in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Developmental Neuropsychology 1998, 14:299-320.
102. Harris J.A., Vernon P.A., Boomsma D.I. The heritability if testosterone: A study of Dutch adolescent twins and their parents. Behavior Genetics 1998, 28:165-171.
103. Heinonen O.P. Diethylstilbestrol in pregnancy: Frequency of exposure and usage patterns. Cancer (Philadelphia) 1973, 31:573-577.
104. Helleday J., Bartfai A., Ritzen E.M., Forsman M. General intelligence and cognitive profile in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Psychoneuroendocrinology 1994, 19:343-356.
105. Helleday J., Edman G., Ritzen E.M., Siwers B. Personality characteristics and platelet MAO activity in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Psychoneuroendocrinology 1993, 18:343-354.
106. Helleday J., Siwers B., Ritzen E.M., Hugdahl K. Normal lateralization for handedness and ear advantage in a verbal dichotic listening task in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Neuropsychologia 1994, 32:875-880.
107. Henderson B.A., Berenbaum S.A. Sex-typed play in opposite-sex twins. Developmental Psychobiology 1997, 31:115-123.
108. Herbst A.L., Bern H.A. Developmental Effects of Diethylstilbestrol (DES) in Pregnancy 1981, Thieme-Stratton, New York.
109. Herbst A.L., Ulfeder H., Poskanzer D.C. Adenocarcinoma of the vagina. Association of maternal stilbestrol therapy with tumor appearance in young women. New England Journal of Medicine 1971, 284:878-881.
110. Herdt G.H., Davidson J. The Sambia 'Turnim-Man': Sociocultural and clinical aspects of gender formation in male pseudohermaphrodites with 5-alpha-reductase deficiency in Papua New Guinea. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1988, 17:33-56.
111. Hier D.B., Crowley W.F. Spatial ability in androgen-deficient men. New England Journal of Medicine 1982, 306:1202-1205.
112. Hines M. Prenatal gonadal hormones and sex differences in human behavior. Psychological Bulletin 1982, 92:56-80.
113. Hines M. Activation/organization, masculinization/feminization: What are they and how are they distinguished?. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1998, 21:332-333.
114. Hines M. Brain Gender 2004, Oxford University Press, New York.
115. Hines M., Ahmed S.F., Hughes I. Psychological outcomes and gender-related development in complete androgen insensitivity syndrome. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2003, 32:93-101.
116. Hines M., Allen L.S., Gorski R.A. Sex differences in subregions of the medial nucleus of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Brain Research 1992, 579:321-326.
117. Hines M., Alsum P., Roy M., Gorski R.A., Goy R.W. Estrogenic contributions to sexual differentiation in the female guinea pig: Influences of diethylstilbestrol and tamoxifen on neural, behavioral and ovarian development. Hormones and Behavior 1987, 21:402-417.
118. Hines M., Brook C., Conway G.S. Androgen and psychosexual development: Core gender identity, sexual orientation and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Journal of Sex Research 2004, 41:1-7.
119. Hines M., Chiu L., McAdams L.A., Bentler P.M., Lipcamon J. Cognition and the corpus callosum: Verbal fluency, visuospatial ability and language lateralization related to midsagittal surface areas of callosal subregions. Behavioral Neuroscience 1992, 106:3-14.
120. Hines M., Collaer M.L. Gonadal hormones and sexual differentiation of human behavior: Developments from research on endocrine syndromes and studies of brain structure. Annual Review of Sex Research 1993, 4:1-48.
121. Hines M., Davis F.C., Coquelin A., Goy R.W., Gorski R.A. Sexually dimorphic regions in the medial preoptic area and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of the guinea pig brain: A description and an investigation of their relationship to gonadal steroids in adulthood. Journal of Neuroscience 1985, 5:40-47.
122. Hines M., Fane B.A., Pasterski V.L., Mathews G.A., Conway G.S., Brook C. Spatial abilities following prenatal androgen abnormality: Targeting and mental rotations performance in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Psychoneuroendocrinology 2003, 28:1010-1026.
123. Hines M., Golombok S., Rust J., Johnston K., Golding J. Testosterone during pregnancy and childhood gender role behavior: A longitudinal population study. Child Development 2002, 73:1678-1687. ALSPAC Study Team.
124. Hines M., Gorski R.A. Hormonal influences on the development of neural asymmetries. The Dual Brain: Hemispheric Specialization in Humans 1985, 75-96. Guilford Press, New York. D.F. Benson, E. Zaidel (Eds.).
125. Hines M., Kaufman F.R. Androgen and the development of human sex-typical behavior: Rough-and-tumble play and sex of preferred playmates in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Child Development 1994, 65:1042-1053.
126. Hines M., Shipley C. Prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) and the development of sexually dimorphic cognitive abilities and cerebral lateralization. Developmental Psychology 1984, 20:81-94.
127. Ho K.C., Roessmann U., Straumfjord J.D., Monroe G. Analysis of brain weight: I. Adult brain weight in relation to sex, race and age. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine 1980, 104:635-639.
128. Hofman M.A., Fliers E., Goudsmit E., Swaab D.F. Morphometric analysis of the suprachiasmatic and paraventricular nuclei in the human brain. Journal of Anatomy 1988, 160:127-143.
129. Holloway R.L., de Lacoste M.C. Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum: An extension and replication study. Human Neurobiology 1986, 5:87-91.
130. Hughes I.A., Houk C., Ahmed S.F., Lee P.A. Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2006, 91:554-563.
131. Hurwitz R.S., Manzoni G.M. Cloacal exstrophy. Pediatric Urology 1997, 514-525. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. 3rd edn. B. O'Donnell, S. Kopp (Eds.).
132. Hyde J.S. How large are gender differences in aggression? A developmental meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology 1984, 20:722-736.
133. Hyde J.S., Fennema E., Lamon S.J. Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1990, 107:139-155.
134. Hyde J.S., Linn M.C. Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 1988, 104:53-69.
135. Iervolino A.C. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Gender-Role Behaviour During the Preschool Years: A Study of 3-and 4-Year Old Twins 2003, PhD Thesis, University of London.
136. Imperato-McGinley J. 5-Alpha-reductase deficiency: Human and animal models. European Urology 1994, 25(supplement 1):20-23.
137. Imperato-McGinley J., Guerrero L., Gautier T., Peterson R.E. Steroid 5-alpha-reductase deficiency in man: An inherited form of male pseudohermaphroditism. Science 1974, 186:1213-1215.
138. Imperato-McGinley J., Peterson R.E., Gautier T., Sturla E. Androgens and the evolution of male-gender identity among male pseudohermaphrodites with 5 alpha reductase deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 1979, 300:1233-1237.
139. Imperato-McGinley J., Peterson R.E., Stoller R., Goodwin W.E. Male pseudohermaphroditism secondary to 17-beta-dehydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency: Gender role change with puberty. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1979, 49:391-395.
140. Imperato-McGinley J., Pichardo M., Gautier T., Voyer D., Bryden M.P. Cognitive abilities in androgen-insensitive subjects: Comparison with control males and females from the same kindred. Clinical Endocrinology 1991, 34:341-347.
141. Report of the Task Group on Reference Man 1975, International Committee on Radiological Protection, ICRP Publication No. 23, Pergamon Press, New York.
142. Jacklin C.N., Wilcox K.T., Maccoby E.E. Neonatal sex-steroid hormones and cognitive abilities at six years. Developmental Psychobiology 1988, 21:567-574.
143. Jacobson C.D., Csernus V.J., Shryne J.E., Gorski R.A. The influence of gonadectomy, androgen exposure, or a gonadal graft in the neonatal rat on the volume of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area. Journal of Neuroscience 1981, 1:1142-1147.
144. Jancke L., Staiger J.F., Schlaug G., Huang Y.X., Steinmetz H. The relationship between corpus callosum size and forebrain volume. Cerebral Cortex 1997, 7:48-56.
145. Jardine R., Martin N.G. Spatial ability and throwing accuracy. Behavior Genetics 1983, 13:331-340.
146. Johannsen T.H., Ripa C.P.L., Reinisch J.M., Schwartz M., Mortensen E.L., Main K.M. Impaired cognitive function in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2006, 91:1376-1381.
147. Johnson A.M., Wadsworth J., Wellings K., Bradshaw S., Field J. Sexual lifestyles and HIV risk. Nature 1992, 360:410-412.
148. Juraska J.M. Sex differences in 'cognitive' regions of the rat brain: Environmental influences. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1991, 16:105-119.
149. Juraska J.M., Kopcik J.R. Sex and environmental influences on the size and ultrastructure of the rat corpus callosum. Brain Research 1988, 450:1-8.
150. Kelso W.M., Nicholls M.E.R., Warne G.L. Effects of prenatal androgen exposure on cerebral lateralization in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Brain and Cognition 1999, 40:156.
151. Kelso W.M., Nicholls M.E.R., Warne G.L., Zacharin M. Cerebral lateralization and cognitive functioning in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Neuropsychology 2000, 14:370-378.
152. Kempermann G., Brandon E.P., Gage F.H. Environmental stimulation of 129/SvJ mice causes increased cell proliferatin and neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus. Current Biology 1998, 8:939-942.
153. Kempermann G., Kuhn H.G., Gage F.H. More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment. Nature 1997, 386:493-495.
154. Kertesz A., Polk M., Howell J., Black S.E. Cerebral dominance, sex, and callosal size in MRI. Neurology 1987, 37:1385-1388.
155. Kessler W.O., McLaughlin A.P. Agenesis of penis: Embryology and management. Urology 1973, 1:226-229.
156. Kester P., Green R., Finch S.J., Williams K. Prenatal female hormone administration and psychosexual development in human males. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1980, 5:269-285.
157. Kester P.A. Effects of prenatally administered 17 alpha hydroxyprogesterone caproate on adolescent males. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1984, 13:441-455.
158. Kinsey A., Pomeroy W., Martin C. Sexual Behavior in the Human Male 1948, Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
159. Kinsey A., Pomeroy W., Martin C., Gebhard P.H. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female 1953, Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
160. Kirshbaum J.D. Congenital absence of the external genitals (persistent primitive cloaca). Journal of Pediatrics 1950, 37:102-105.
161. Knickmeyer R., Baron-Cohen S., Fane B., et al. Androgen and autistic traits: A study of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior 2006, 50:148-153.
162. Knickmeyer R., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P., Taylor K. Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2005, 45:1-13.
163. Knickmeyer R., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P., Taylor K., Hackett G. Fetal testosterone and empathy. Hormones and Behavior 2006, 49:282-292.
164. Kolb B., Whishaw I.Q. Fundamentals of Human neuropsychology 1985, W.H. Freeman, New York. 2nd edn.
165. Kuhnle U., Bullinger M. Outcome of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Pediatric Surgery International 1997, 12:511-515.
166. Lasco M.S., Jordan T.J., Edgar M.A., Petito C.K., Byne W. A lack of dimorphism of sex or sexual orientation in the human anterior commissure. Brain Research 2002, 936:95-98.
167. Lev-Ran A. Sexuality and educational levels of women with the late-treated adrenogenital syndrome. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1974, 3:27-32.
168. LeVay S. A difference in hypothalamic structure between heterosexual and homosexual men. Science 1991, 253:1034-1037.
169. Leveroni C.L., Berenbaum S.A. Early androgen effects on interest in infants: Evidence from children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Neuropsychology 1998, 14:321-340.
170. Linn M.C., Petersen A.C. Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development 1985, 56:1479-1498.
171. Lippe B. Turner syndrome. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 1991, 20:121-152.
172. Lish J.D., Ehrhardt A.A., Meyer-Bahlburg H.L., Rosen L.R., Gruen R.S., Veridiano N.P. Gender-related behavior development in females exposed to diethylstilbestrol (DES) in utero: An attempted replication. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1991, 30:29-37.
173. Lish J.D., Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Ehrhardt A.A., Travis B.G., Veridiano N.P. Prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES): Childhood play behavior and adult gender-role behavior in women. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1992, 21:423-441.
174. Loehlin J.C. Group differences in intelligence. Handbook of Intelligence 2000, 176-193. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. R.J. Sternberg (Ed.).
175. Lutchmaya S., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P. Foetal testosterone and eye contact in 12-month-old human infants. Infant Behavior and Development 2002, 25:327-335.
176. Lutchmaya S., Baron-Cohen S., Raggatt P. Foetal testosterone and vocabulary size in 18-and 24-month-old infants. Infant Behavior and Development 2002, 24:418-442.
177. Lynch A., Mychalkiw W. Prenatal progesterone II. Its role in the treatment of pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its effect on the offspring's intelligence: A reappraisal. Early Human Development 1978, 2:323-339.
178. Lynch A., Mychalkiw W., Hutt S.J. Prenatal progesterone I. Its effect on development and on intellectual and academic achievement. Early Human Development 1978, 2:305-322.
179. Maccoby E.E. Gender as a social category. Developmental Psychology 1988, 24:755-765.
180. Maccoby E.E., Jacklin C.N. The Psychology of Sex Differences 1974, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA.
181. Maccoby E.E., Jacklin C.N. Gender segregation in children. Advances in Child Development and Behavior 1987, 239-287. Academic Press, New York. H.W. Reece (Ed.).
182. MacLusky N., Lieberburg I., McEwen B.S. The development of estrogen receptor systems in the rat brain: Perinatal development. Brain Research 1979, 178:129-142.
183. MacLusky N.J., Naftolin F. Sexual differentiation of the central nervous system. Science 1981, 211:1294-1303.
184. Madeira M.D., Sousa N., Santer R.M., Paulabarbosa M.M., Gunderson H.J.G. Age and sex do not affect the volume, cell numbers or cell-size of the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the rat - an unbiased stereological study. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1995, 361:585-601.
185. Malouf M.A., Migeon C.J., Carson K.A., Pertrucci L., Wisniewski A.B. Cognitive outcome in adult women affected by congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Hormone Research 2006, 65:142-150.
186. Manning J., Churchill A.J.G., Peters M. The effects of sex, ethnicity, and sexual orientation on self-measured digit ratio (2D:4D). Archives of Sexual Behavior 2007, 36:223-233.
187. Mansour C.S., Haier R.J., Buchsbaum M.S. Gender comparisons of cerebral glucose metabolic rate in healthy adults during a cognitive task.
188. Masica D.N., Money J., Ehrhardt A. Fetal feminization and female gender identity in the testicular feminizing syndrome of androgen insensitivity. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1971, 1:131-142.
189. Mathews G.A., Fane B., Pasterski V.L., Conway G.S., Brook C., Hines M. Androgenic influences on neural asymmetry: Handedness and language lateralization in congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004, 29:810-822.
190. Mathews GA, Fane BA, Conway GS, Brook C, Hines M (in press) Prenatal androgen abnormality and personality development. Hormones and Behavior.
191. Mazur T. Gender dysphoria and gender change in androgen insensitivity or micropenis. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2005, 34:411-421.
192. McCarthy M.M. Estradiol and the developing brain. Physiological Reviews 2008, 88:91-134.
193. McFadden D., Loehlin J.C., Breedlove S.M., Lippa R.A., Manning J.T., Rahman Q. A reanalysis of five studies on sexual orientation and the relative length of the 2nd and 4th fingers (the 2D:4D ratio). Archives of Sexual Behavior 2005, 34:341-356.
194. McGlone J. Sex differences in human brain asymmetry: A critical survey. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1980, 3:215-263.
195. McGuire L.S., Omenn G.S. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: I. Family studies of IQ. Behavioral Genetics 1975, 5:165-173.
196. McGuire L.S., Ryan K.O., Omenn G.S. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia II: Cognitive and behavioral studies. Behavior Genetics 1975, 5:175-188.
197. Meaney M.J., Stewart J. Neonatal androgens influence the social play of prepubescent rats. Hormones and Behavior 1981, 15:197-213.
198. Meisel R.L., Ward I.L. Fetal female rats are masculinized by littermates located caudally in the uterus. Science 1981, 213:239-242.
199. Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L. Gender identity outcome in female-raised 46, XY persons with penile agenesis, cloacal exstrophy of the bladder, or penile ablation. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2005, 34:423-438.
200. Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Dolezal C., Baker S.W., New M.I. Sexual orientation in women with classical or non-classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia as a function of degree of prenatal androgen excess. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2008, 37:85-99.
201. Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Ehrhardt A.A., Rosen L.R., et al. Prenatal estrogens and the development of homosexual orientation. Developmental Psychology 1995, 31:12-21.
202. Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Ehrhardt A.A., Whitehead E.D., Vann F.H. Sexuality in males with a history of prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES). Proceedings of the Workshop on Psychosexual and Reproductive Issues Affecting Patients with Cancer-1987 1987, 79-82. American Cancer Society, New York.
203. Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Grisanti G.C., Ehrhardt A.A. Prenatal effects of sex hormones on human male behavior: Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). Psychoneuroendocrinology 1977, 2:383-390.
204. Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., Gruen R.S., New M.I., et al. Gender change from female to male in classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior 1996, 30:319-332.
205. Molko N., Cachia A., Riviere D., et al. Brain anatomy in Turner syndrome: Evidence for impaired social and spatial-numerical networks. Cerebral Cortex 2004, 14:840-850.
206. Money J. Gender identity and hermaphroditism. Science 1976, 191:872.
207. Money J., Daléry J. Iatrogenic homosexuality: Gender identity in seven 46, XX chromosomal females with hyperadrenocortical hermaphroditism born with a penis, three reared as boys, four reared as girls. Journal of Homosexuality 1976, 1:357-371.
208. Money J., Ehrhardt A. Man and Woman: Boy and Girl 1972, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
209. Money J., Lewis V. IQ, genetics and accelerated growth: Adrenogenital syndrome. Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin 1966, 118:365-373.
210. Money J., Schwartz M., Lewis V. Adult erotosexual status and fetal hormonal masculinization and demasculinization: 46 XX congenital virilizing adrenal hyperplasia and 46 XY androgen-insensitivity syndrome compared. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1984, 9:405-414.
211. Mulaikal R.M., Migeon C.J., Rock J.A. Fertility rates in female patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 1987, 316:178-182.
212. Murphy D.G.M., DeCarli C., McIntosh A.R., et al. Sex differences in human brain morphometry and metabolism: An in vivo quantitative magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography study on the effect of aging. Archives of General Psychiatry 1996, 53:585-594.
213. Murphy D.G.M., Mentis M.J., Pietrini P., et al. A PET study of Turner's syndrome: Effects of sex steroids and the X chromosome on brain. Biological Psychiatry 1997, 41:285-298.
214. Nasrallah H.A., Andreasen N.C., Coffman J.A., Olson S.C., Dunn V., Ehrhardt J.C. The corpus callosum is not larger in left-handers. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 1986, 12:720.
215. Nass R., Baker S., Speiser P., et al. Hormones and handedness: Left-hand bias in female congenital adrenal hyperplasia patients. Neurology 1987, 37:711-715.
216. New M. Diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Annual Review of Medicine 1998, 49:311-328.
217. Noller K.L., Fish C.R. Diethylstilbestrol usage: Its interesting past, important present and questionable future. Medical Clinics of America 1974, 58:793-810.
218. Nordenstrom A., Servin A., Bohlin G., Larsson A., Wedell A. Sex-typed toy play behavior correlates with the degree of prenatal androgen exposure assessed by CYP21 genotype in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2002, 87:5119-5124.
219. O'Kusky J., Strauss E., Kosaka B., et al. The corpus callosum is larger with right-hemisphere cerebral speech dominance. Annals of Neurology 1988, 24:379-383.
220. Okten A., Kalyonku M., Yaris N. The ratio of second- and fourth-digit lengths and congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Early Human Development 2002, 70:47-54.
221. Pang S., Levine L.S., Cederqvist L.L., et al. Amniotic fluid concentrations of delta 5 and delta 4 steroids in fetuses with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency and in anencephalic fetuses. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1980, 51:223-229.
222. Pang S., Levine L.S., Chow D.M., Faiman C., New M.I. Serum androgen concentrations in neonates and young infants with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Clinical Endocrinology 1979, 11:575-584.
223. Pasterski V.L., Geffner M.E., Brain C., Hindmarsh P., Brook C., Hines M. Prenatal hormones and postnatal socialization by parents as determinants of male-typical toy play in girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Child Development 2005, 76:264-278.
224. Pasterski V.L., Hindmarsh P., Geffner M., Brook C., Brain C., Hines M. Increased aggression and activity level in 3-to 11-year-old girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Hormones and Behavior 2007, 52:368-374.
225. Perlman S.M. Cognitive abilities of children with hormone abnormalities: Screening by psychoeducational tests. Journal of Learning Disabilities 1973, 6:21-29.
226. Peters M., Manning J., Reimers S. The effects of sex, sexual orientation, and digit ratio (2D:4D) on mental rotation performance. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2007, 36:251-260.
227. Phoenix C.H., Goy R.W., Gerall A.A., Young W.C. Organizing action of prenatally administered testosterone propionate on the tissues mediating mating behavior in the female guinea pig. Endocrinology (Baltimore) 1959, 65:163-196.
228. Plante E., Boliek C., Binkiewicz A., Erly W.K. Elevated androgen, brain development and language/learning disabilities in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 1996, 38:423-437.
229. Puts D.A., McDaniel M.A., Jordan C.L., Breedlove S.M. Spatial ability and prenatal androgens: Meta-analyses of congenital adrenal hyperplasia and digit ratio (2D:4D) studies. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2008, 37:100-111.
230. Quadagno D.M., Briscoe R., Quadagno J.S. Effects of perinatal gonadal hormones on selected nonsexual behavior patterns: A critical assessment of the nonhuman and human literature. Psychological Bulletin 1977, 84:62-80.
231. Reinarz S.J., Coffman C.E., Smoker W.R.K., Godersky F.C. MR imaging of the corpus callosum: Normal and pathologic findings and correlation with CT. American Journal of Radiology 1988, 151:791-798.
232. Reiner W.G., Gearhart J.P. Discordant sexual identity in some genetic males with cloacal exstrophy assigned to female sex at birth. New England Journal of Medicine 2004, 350:333-341.
233. Reiner W.G., Gearhart J.P., Jeffs R. Psychosexual dysfunction in males with genital anomalies: Late adolescence, Tanner stages IV to VI. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1999, 38:865-872.
234. Reinisch J.M. Prenatal exposure to synthetic progestins increases potential for aggression in humans. Science 1981, 211:1171-1173.
235. Reinisch J.M., Karow W.G. Prenatal exposure to synthetic progestins and estrogens: Effects on human development. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1977, 6:257-288.
236. Reinisch J.M., Sanders S.A. Effects of prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) on hemispheric laterality and spatial ability in human males. Hormones and Behavior 1992, 26:62-75.
237. Reiss A.L., Freund L.S., Plotnick L.P., et al. The effects of X monosomy on brain development: Monozygotic twins discordant for Turner's syndrome. Annals of Neurology 1993, 34:95-107.
238. Reiss A.L., Mazzocco M.M., Greenlaw R., Freund L.S., Ross J.L. Neurodevelopmental effects of X monosomy. A volumetric imaging study. Annals of Neurology 1995, 38:731-738.
239. Resnick S.M., Berenbaum S.A., Gottesman I.I., Bouchard T. Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology 1986, 22:191-198.
240. Reyes F.I., Winter J.S.D., Faiman C. Studies on human sexual development. I. Fetal gonadal and adrenal sex steroids. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1973, 37:74-78.
241. Richart R.M., Benirschke K. Penile agenesis: Report of case, review of world literature and discussion of pertinent embryology. Archives of Pathology 1960, 70:252-260.
242. Rosler A., Kohn G. Male pseudohermaphroditism due to 17 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency: Studies on the natural history of the defect and effect of androgens on gender role. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry 1983, 19:663-674.
243. Ross J.L., Zinn A.R. Turner syndrome: Potential hormonal and genetic influences on the neurocognitive profile. Neurodevelopmental Disorders 1999, 251-267. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. H. Tager-Flusberg (Ed.).
244. Rovet J.F. The cognitive and neuropsychological characteristics of females with Turner syndrome. Sex Chromosome Abnormalities and Human Behavior 1990, 38-77. Westview, Boulder, CO. D.B. Berch, B.G. Bender (Eds.).
245. Rust J., Golombok S., Hines M., Johnston K., Golding J. The role of brothers and sisters in the gender development of preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2000, 77:292-303. ALSPAC Study Team.
246. Rutter M. Language disorder and infantile autism. Autism: A Reappraisal of Concepts and Treatment 1978, 1-26. Plenum, New York. M. Rutter, E. Schopler (Eds.).
247. Rutter M., Caspi A., Moffitt T.E. Using sex differences in psychopathology to study causal mechanisms: Unifying issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2003, 44:1092-1115.
248. Sanders B., Soares M.P., D'Aquila J.M. The sex difference on one test of spatial visualization: A nontrivial difference. Child Development 1982, 53:1106-1110.
249. Sarkar P., Bergman K., Fisk N.M., O'Connor T.G., Glover V. Amniotic fluid testosterone: Relationship with cortisol and gestational age. Clinical Endocrinology 2007, 67:743-747.
250. Satz P., Orsini D.L., Saslow E., Henry R. Early brain injury and pathological left-handedness: Clues to a syndrome. The Dual Brain: Hemispheric Specialization in Humans 1985, 117-125. Guilford, New York. D.F. Benson, E. Zaidel (Eds.).
251. Schachter S.C. Handedness in women with intrauterine exposure to diethystilbesterol. Neuropsychologia 1994, 32:619-623.
252. Scheirs J.G.M., Vingerhoets A.J.J.M. Handedness and other laterality indices in women prenatally exposed to DES. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 1995, 17:725-730.
253. Schober J.M. Quality-of-life studies in patients with ambiguous genitalia. World Journal of Urology 1999, 17:249.
254. Schober J.M., Carmichael P.A., Hines M., Ransley P.G. The ultimate challenge of cloacal exstrophy. Journal of Urology 2002, 167:300-304.
255. Sell R.L., Wells J.A., Wypij D. The prevalence of homosexual behavior and attraction in the United States, the United Kingdom and France: Results of national population-based samples. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1995, 24:235-248.
256. Shaywitz B.A., Shaywitz S.E., Pugh K.R., et al. Sex differences in the functional organization of the brain for language. Nature 1995, 373:607-609.
257. Sinforiani E., Livieri C., Mauri M., et al. Cognitive and neuroradiological findings in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1994, 19:55-64.
258. Singh R.P., Carr D.H. The anatomy and histology of XO human embryos and fetuses. Anatomical Record 1966, 155:369-384.
259. Slijper F.M.E., Drop S.L.S., Molenaar J.C., de Muinck Keizer-Schrama S.M.P.F. Long-term psychological evaluation of intersex children. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1998, 27:125-144.
260. Smith L.L., Hines M. Language lateralization and handedness in women prenatally exposed to diethylstilbestrol (DES). Psychoneuroendocrinology 2000, 25:497-512.
261. Snow M.E., Jacklin C.N., Maccoby E.E. Sex of child differences in father-child interaction at one year of age. Child Development 1983, 54:227-232.
262. Spira A., Bajos N., Bejin A., et al. AIDS and sexual behavior in France. Nature 1992, 360:407-409.
263. Spreen O., Strauss E. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests 1991, Oxford University Press, New York.
264. Stumpf W.E., Sar M., Keefer D.A. Atlas of estrogen target cells in rat brain. Anatomical Neuroendocrinology 1975, 104-119. Karger, Basel. W.E. Stumpf, C.D. Grant (Eds.).
265. Sutton-Smith B., Rosenberg B.G., Morgan E.F. Development of sex differences in play choices during preadolescence. Child Development 1963, 34:119-126.
266. Swaab D., Hofman M. Sexual differentiation of the human hypothalamus: Ontogeny of the sexually dimorphic nucleus of the preoptic area. Developmental Brain Research 1988, 44:314-318.
267. Swaab D.F., Fliers E. A sexually dimorphic nucleus in the human brain. Science 1985, 228:1112-1115.
268. Swaab D.F., Fliers E., Partiman T.S. The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the human brain in relationship to sex, age and senile dementia. Brain Research 1985, 342:37-44.
269. Swaab D.F., Hofman M.A. An enlarged suprachiasmatic nucleus in homosexual men. Brain Research 1990, 537:141-148.
270. Tanner J.M., Whitehouse R.H., Takaishi M. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity and weight velocity: British children, 1965. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1966, 41:454-471.
271. Temple C.M., Carney R. Reading skills in children with Turner's syndrome: An analysis of hyperlexia. Cortex 1996, 32:335-345.
272. Tirosh E., Rod R., Cohen A., Hochberg Z. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia and cerebral lateralizations. Pediatric Neurology 1993, 9:198-201.
273. Titus-ErnstoffL., Perez K., Hatch E., et al. Psychosexual characteristics of men and women exposed prenatally to diethylstilbestrol. Epidemiology 2003, 14:155.
274. Tobet S.A., Zahniser D.J., Baum M.J. Sexual dimorphism in the preoptic/anterior hypothalamic area of ferrets: Effects of adult exposure to sex steroids. Brain Research 1986, 364:249-257.
275. Toran-Allerand C.D. On the genesis of sexual differentiation of the central nervous system: Morphogenetic consequences of steroidal exposure and the possible role of alpha-fetoprotein. Progress in Brain Research 1984, 61:63-98.
276. van de Beek C., Van Goozen S.H.M., Buitelaar J.K., Cohen-Kettenis P.T. Prenatal sex hormones (maternal and amniotic fluid) and gender-related play behavior in 13-month-old infants. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2008, 10.1007/s10508-007-9291-z.
277. Voyer D. On the magnitude of laterality effects and sex differences in functional lateralities. Laterality 1996, 1:51-83.
278. Voyer D., Voyer S., Bryden M.P. Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin 1995, 117:250-270.
279. Waber D.P. Neuropsychological aspects of Turner's syndrome. Developmental Neurology 1979, 1979:58-70.
280. Watson N.V., Kimura D. Nontrivial sex differences in throwing and intercepting: Relation to psychometrically-defined spatial functions. Personality and Individual Differences 1991, 12:375-385.
281. Wenzel U., Schneider M., Zachmann M., Knorr-Murset G., Weber A., Prader A. Intelligence of patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency, their parents and unaffected siblings. Helvetica Paediatrica Acta 1978, 33:11-16.
282. Whitcomb R.W., Crowley W.F. Male hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America 1993, 22:125-163.
283. White B.J. The Turner syndrome: Origin, cytogenetic variants, and factors influencing the phenotype. Atypical Cognitive Deficits in Developmental Disorders: Implications for Brain Function 1994, 183-195. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. S.H. Broman, J. Grafman (Eds.).
284. Wilcox A.J., Maxey J., Herbst A.L. Prenatal hormone exposure and performance on college entrance examinations. Hormones and Behavior 1992, 24:433-439.
285. Williams T.J., Pepitone M.E., Christensen B.M., et al. Finger length patterns indicate an influence of fetal androgens on human sexual orientation. Nature 2000, 30:455-456.
286. Wilson J.D. Sex hormones and sexual behavior. New England Journal of Medicine 1979, 300:1269-1270.
287. Wilson J.D. Androgens, androgen receptors and male gender role behavior. Hormones and Behavior 2001, 40:358-366.
288. Wilson J.D., George F.W., Griffin J.E. The hormonal control of sexual development. Science 1981, 211:1278-1284.
289. Wilson J.D., Griffin J.E., Russell D.W. Steroid 5 alpha reductase 2 deficiency. Endocrine Reviews 1993, 14:577-593.
290. Wing L. Asperger syndrome: A clinical account. Psychological Medicine 1981, 11:115-130.
291. Winter J.S.D., Hughes I.A., Reyes F.I., Faiman C. Pituitary-gonadal relations in infancy: 2. Patterns of serum gonadal steroid concentration sin man from birth to two years of age. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1976, 42:679-686.
292. Wisniewski A.B., Migeon C.J., Meyer-Bahlburg H.F.L., et al. Complete androgen insensitivity syndrome. Long-term medical, surgical, and psychosexual outcome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2000, 85:2664-2669.
293. Witelson S.F. The brain connection: The corpus callosum is larger in left-handers. Science 1985, 229:665-668.
294. Witelson S.F., Glezer I.I., Kigar D.L. Women have greater density of neurons in posterior temporal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience 1995, 15:3418-3428.
295. Witelson S.F., Kigar D.L., Scamvougeras A., et al. Corpus callosum anatomy in right-handed homosexual and heterosexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2008, 10.1007/s10508-007-9276-y.
296. Witelson W.F. Hand and sex differences in the isthmus and genu of the human corpus callosum: A postmortem morphological study. Brain 1989, 112:799-835.
297. Wudy S., Dorr H.G., Solleder C., Djalali M., Homoki J. Profiling steroid hormones in amniotic fluid of midpregnancy by routine stable isotope dilution/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: Reference values and concentrations in fetuses at risk for 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1999, 84:2724-2728.
298. Yalom I.D., Green R., Fisk N. Prenatal exposure to female hormones: Effect on psychosexual development in boys. Archives of General Psychiatry 1973, 28:554-561.
299. Young H.H., Cockett A.T.K., Stoller R., Ashley F.L., Goodwin W.E. The management of agenesis of the phallus. Pediatrics 1971, 47:81-87.
300. Zhou J., Hofman M.A., Gooren L.J.G., Swaab D.F. A sex difference in the human brain and its relation to transsexuality. Nature 1995, 378:68-70.
301. Zinn A.R., Page D.C., Fisher E.M.C. Turner syndrome: The case of the missing sex chromosome. Trends in Genetics 1993, 9:90-93.
302. Zucker K.J. Intersexuality and gender identity differentiation. Journal of Pediatric Adolescent Gynecology 2002, 15:3-13.
303. Zucker K.J., Bradley S.J., Oliver G., Blake J., Fleming S., Hood J. Psychosexual development of women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior 1996, 30:300-318.