Lipoprotein(a) metabolism: Potential sites for therapeutic targets

Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental

Volumn 62, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 479-491

  Hoover Plow, Jane ^a   Huang, Menggui ^a  

^a JACOBS ENGINEERING   (United States)

Author keywords

Assembly; Catabolism; Expression; Modification; Plasminogen mimetic

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANACETRAPIB; APOLIPOPROTEIN B; CARNITINE; ENZYME PRECURSOR; FARNESOID X RECEPTOR; FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR 19; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INTERLEUKIN 6; LIPOPROTEIN A; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MIPOMERSEN; NICOTINIC ACID; PLASMIN; PLASMINOGEN; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; TOCILIZUMAB; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR GATA 4; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

APHERESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARBOXY TERMINAL SEQUENCE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISULFIDE BOND; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HAPLOTYPE; HUMAN; INHIBITION KINETICS; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LIPOPROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM; LIVER CELL; NONHUMAN; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN ASSEMBLY; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN DOMAIN; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN LOCALIZATION; PROTEIN SYNTHESIS; REVIEW; START CODON; STRUCTURE ANALYSIS; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION;

ANIMALS; APOLIPOPROTEINS A; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; HUMANS; LIPOPROTEIN(A); RECEPTORS, LDL; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 84884211406     PISSN: 00260495     EISSN: 15328600     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2012.07.024     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. K. Berg A new serum type system in man - the Lp system Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand 59 1963 369 382
2. S.M. Marcovina, J.J. Albers, and A.M. Scanu Use of a reference material proposed by the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine to evaluate analytical methods for the determination of plasma lipoprotein(a) Clin Chem 46 2000 1956 1967
3. J.M. Simo, J. Camps, and E. Vilella Instability of lipoprotein(a) in plasma stored at - 70 degrees C: effects of concentration, apolipoprotein(a) genotype, and donor cardiovascular disease Clin Chem 47 2001 1673 1678
4. S. Erqou, S. Kaptoge, and P.L. Perry Lipoprotein(a) concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and nonvascular mortality JAMA 302 2009 412 423
5. B.G. Nordestgaard, M.J. Chapman, and K. Ray Lipoprotein(a) as a cardiovascular risk factor: current status Eur Heart J 31 2010 2844 2853
6. P.R. Kamstrup Lipoprotein(a) and ischemic heart disease - a causal association? A review Atherosclerosis 211 2010 15 23
7. J.W. McLean, J.E. Tomlinson, and W.J. Kuang cDNA sequence of human apolipoprotein(a) is homologous to plasminogen Nature 330 1987 132 137
8. L.A. Miles, and E.F. Plow Lp(a): an interloper into the fibrinolytic system? Thromb Haemost 63 1990 331 335
9. E. Boerwinkle, C.C. Leffert, and J. Lin Apolipoprotein(a) gene accounts for greater than 90% of the variation in plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations J Clin Invest 90 1992 52 60
10. G. Gaeta, S. Lanero, and S. Barra Sex hormones and lipoprotein(a) concentration Expert Opin Investig Drugs 20 2011 221 238
11. I. Gouni-Berthold, and H.K. Berthold Lipoprotein(a): current perspectives Curr Vasc Pharmacol 9 2011 682 692
12. K.M. Kostner, and G.M. Kostner Therapy of hyper-Lp(a) Handb Exp Pharmacol 2005 519 536
13. I. Chennamsetty, T. Claudel, and K.M. Kostner Farnesoid X receptor represses hepatic human APOA gene expression J Clin Invest 121 2011 3724 3734
14. M.J. Evans, P.E. Mahaney, and L. Borges-Marcucci A synthetic farnesoid X receptor (FXR) agonist promotes cholesterol lowering in models of dyslipidemia Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 296 2009 G543 G552
15. I. Chennamsetty, T. Claudel, and K.M. Kostner FGF19 signaling cascade suppresses APOA gene expression Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012
16. S.P. McCormick Lipoprotein(a): biology and clinical importance Clin Biochem Rev 25 2004 69 80
17. J.L. Hoover-Plow, L.A. Miles, and G.M. Fless Comparison of the lysine binding functions of lipoprotein(a) and plasminogen Biochemistry 32 1993 13681 13687
18. S. Frank, A. Hrzenjak, and K. Kostner Effect of tranexamic acid and delta-aminovaleric acid on lipoprotein(a) metabolism in transgenic mice Biochim Biophys Acta 1438 1999 99 110
19. M. Sharma, D.R. Sharma, and V. Singh Evaluation of efficacy and safety of fixed dose lovastatin and niacin(ER) combination in Asian Indian dyslipidemic patients: a multicentric study Vasc Health Risk Manag 2 2006 87 93
20. J.G. Robinson Management of complex lipid abnormalities with a fixed dose combination of simvastatin and extended release niacin Vasc Health Risk Manag 5 2009 31 43
21. S.J. Nicholls, W.H. Tang, and H. Scoffone Lipoprotein(a) levels and long-term cardiovascular risk in the contemporary era of statin therapy J Lipid Res 51 2010 3055 3061
22. V. Bermudez, N. Arraiz, and D. Aparicio Lipoprotein(a): from molecules to therapeutics Am J Ther 17 2010 263 273
23. P.W. Ladenson, J.D. Kristensen, and E.C. Ridgway Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidemia N Engl J Med 362 2010 906 916
24. J.M. McKenney, M.J. Koren, and D.J. Kereiakes Safety and efficacy of a monoclonal antibody to proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 serine protease, SAR236553/REGN727, in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia receiving ongoing stable atorvastatin therapy J Am Coll Cardiol 59 2012 2344 2353
25. W.E. Boden, J.L. Probstfield, and T. Anderson Niacin in patients with low HDL cholesterol levels receiving intensive statin therapy N Engl J Med 365 2011 2255 2267
26. M.E. Frischmann, F. Kronenberg, and E. Trenkwalder In vivo turnover study demonstrates diminished clearance of lipoprotein(a) in hemodialysis patients Kidney Int 71 2007 1036 1043
27. D.J. Rader, W. Cain, and K. Ikewaki The inverse association of plasma lipoprotein(a) concentrations with apolipoprotein(a) isoform size is not due to differences in Lp(a) catabolism but to differences in production rate J Clin Invest 93 1994 2758 2763
28. F. Krempler Metabolism of lipoprotein Lp(a) Artery 8 1980 151 156
29. K.G. Parhofer, T. Demant, and M.M. Ritter Lipoprotein (a) metabolism estimated by nonsteady-state kinetics Lipids 34 1999 325 335
30. R. Clarke, J.F. Peden, and J.C. Hopewell Genetic variants associated with Lp(a) lipoprotein level and coronary disease N Engl J Med 361 2009 2518 2528
31. K. Makino, J.W. Furbee Jr., A.M. Scanu, and G.M. Fless Effect of glycation on the properties of lipoprotein(a) Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15 1995 385 391
32. J. Hoover-Plow, and P. Skocir Enzymatic and chemical modifications of lipoprotein(a) selectively alter its lysine-binding functions Biochim Biophys Acta 1392 1998 73 84
33. S. Tsimikas, Z. Mallat, and P.J. Talmud Oxidation-specific biomarkers, lipoprotein(a), and risk of fatal and nonfatal coronary events J Am Coll Cardiol 56 2010 946 955
34. H.C. Guo, J.B. Michel, Y. Blouquit, and M.J. Chapman Lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) in a New World monkey, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Association of variable plasma lipoprotein(a) levels with a single apolipoprotein(a) isoform Arterioscler Thromb 11 1991 1030 1041
35. P.M. Laplaud, M. Saboureau, L. Beaubatie, and B. el-Omari Seasonal variations of plasma lipids and lipoproteins in the hedgehog, an animal model for lipoprotein (a) metabolism: relation to plasma thyroxine and testosterone levels Biochim Biophys Acta 1005 1989 143 156
36. L. Fu, D.G. Jamieson, D.C. Usher, and E. Lavi Gene expression of apolipoprotein(a) within the wall of human aorta and carotid arteries Atherosclerosis 158 2001 303 311
37. D.P. Wade, B.L. Knight, K. Harders-Spengel, and A.K. Soutar Detection and quantitation of apolipoprotein(a) mRNA in human liver and its relationship with plasma lipoprotein(a) concentration Atherosclerosis 91 1991 63 72
38. O. Schultz, F. Oberhauser, and J. Saech Effects of inhibition of interleukin-6 signalling on insulin sensitivity and lipoprotein (a) levels in human subjects with rheumatoid diseases PLoS One 5 2010 e14328
39. J. Rubin, H.J. Kim, and T.A. Pearson The apolipoprotein(a) gene: linkage disequilibria at three loci differs in African Americans and Caucasians Atherosclerosis 201 2008 138 147
40. I.F. Godsland Effects of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy on lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein (a) concentrations: analysis of studies published from 1974-2000 Fertil Steril 75 2001 898 915
41. J.L. Jenner, J.M. Ordovas, and S. Lamon-Fava Effects of age, sex, and menopausal status on plasma lipoprotein(a) levels. The Framingham Offspring Study Circulation 87 1993 1135 1141
42. B.R. Zysow, K. Kauser, R.M. Lawn, and G.M. Rubanyi Effects of estrus cycle, ovariectomy, and treatment with estrogen, tamoxifen, and progesterone on apolipoprotein(a) gene expression in transgenic mice Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17 1997 1741 1745
43. D. Boffelli, D.A. Zajchowski, Z. Yang, and R.M. Lawn Estrogen modulation of apolipoprotein(a) expression. Identification of a regulatory element J Biol Chem 274 1999 15569 15574
44. D.P. Wade, J.G. Clarke, and G.E. Lindahl 5' control regions of the apolipoprotein(a) gene and members of the related plasminogen gene family Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90 1993 1369 1373
45. S. Negi, S.K. Singh, and N. Pati A proximal tissue-specific module and a distal negative regulatory module control apolipoprotein(a) gene transcription Biochem J 379 2004 151 159
46. R. Ramharack, D. Barkalow, and M.A. Spahr Dominant negative effect of TGF-beta1 and TNF-alpha on basal and IL-6-induced lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) mRNA expression in primary monkey hepatocyte cultures Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 18 1998 984 990
47. H.K. Berthold, M. Laudes, W. Krone, and I. Gouni-Berthold Association between the interleukin-6 promoter polymorphism -174G/C and serum lipoprotein(a) concentrations in humans PLoS One 6 2011 e24719
48. Z. Yang, D. Boffelli, and N. Boonmark Apolipoprotein(a) gene enhancer resides within a LINE element J Biol Chem 273 1998 891 897
49. L.H. Puckey, and B.L. Knight Sequence and functional changes in a putative enhancer region upstream of the apolipoprotein(a) gene Atherosclerosis 166 2003 119 127
50. T. Huby, V. Afzal, and C. Doucet Regulation of the expression of the apolipoprotein(a) gene: evidence for a regulatory role of the 5' distal apolipoprotein(a) transcription control region enhancer in yeast artificial chromosome transgenic mice Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 23 2003 1633 1639
51. J. Wang, and A.L. White Role of N-linked glycans, chaperone interactions and proteasomes in the intracellular targeting of apolipoprotein(a) Biochem Soc Trans 27 1999 453 458
52. C. Edelstein, N.O. Davidson, and A.M. Scanu Oleate stimulates the formation of triglyceride-rich particles containing apoB100-apo(a) in long-term primary cultures of human hepatocytes Chem Phys Lipids 67-68 1994 135 143
53. F. Nassir, D.K. Bonen, and N.O. Davidson Apolipoprotein(a) synthesis and secretion from hepatoma cells is coupled to triglyceride synthesis and secretion J Biol Chem 273 1998 17793 17800
54. D.K. Bonen, A.M. Hausman, and C. Hadjiagapiou Expression of a recombinant apolipoprotein(a) in HepG2 cells. Evidence for intracellular assembly of lipoprotein(a) J Biol Chem 272 1997 5659 5667
55. A.L. White, D.L. Rainwater, and J.E. Hixson Intracellular processing of apo(a) in primary baboon hepatocytes Chem Phys Lipids 67-68 1994 123 133
56. E.M. Lobentanz, K. Krasznai, and A. Gruber Intracellular metabolism of human apolipoprotein(a) in stably transfected Hep G2 cells Biochemistry 37 1998 5417 5425
57. G. Chiesa, H.H. Hobbs, and M.L. Koschinsky Reconstitution of lipoprotein(a) by infusion of human low density lipoprotein into transgenic mice expressing human apolipoprotein(a) J Biol Chem 267 1992 24369 24374
58. W. Su, H. Campos, and H. Judge Metabolism of Apo(a) and ApoB100 of lipoprotein(a) in women: effect of postmenopausal estrogen replacement J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 1998 3267 3276
59. T. Demant, K. Seeberg, A. Bedynek, and D. Seidel The metabolism of lipoprotein(a) and other apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins: a kinetic study in humans Atherosclerosis 157 2001 325 339
60. J.L. Jenner, L.J. Seman, and J.S. Millar The metabolism of apolipoproteins (a) and B-100 within plasma lipoprotein (a) in human beings Metabolism 54 2005 361 369
61. S. Frank, S. Durovic, K. Kostner, and G.M. Kostner Inhibitors for the in vitro assembly of Lp(a) Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 15 1995 1774 1780
62. R.J. Sharp, M.A. Perugini, S.M. Marcovina, and S.P. McCormick Structural features of apolipoprotein B synthetic peptides that inhibit lipoprotein(a) assembly J Lipid Res 45 2004 2227 2234
63. S. Frank, M. Gauster, and J. Strauss Adenovirus-mediated apo(a)-antisense-RNA expression efficiently inhibits apo(a) synthesis in vitro and in vivo Gene Ther 8 2001 425 430
64. E. Merki, M.J. Graham, and A.E. Mullick Antisense oligonucleotide directed to human apolipoprotein B-100 reduces lipoprotein(a) levels and oxidized phospholipids on human apolipoprotein B-100 particles in lipoprotein(a) transgenic mice Circulation 118 2008 743 753
65. S.L. Hofmann, D.L. Eaton, and M.S. Brown Overexpression of human low density lipoprotein receptors leads to accelerated catabolism of Lp(a) lipoprotein in transgenic mice J Clin Invest 85 1990 1542 1547
66. H.G. Kraft, A. Lingenhel, and F.J. Raal Lipoprotein(a) in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20 2000 522 528
67. B.L. Knight Lp(a) catabolism in hypercholesterolaemic individuals Chem Phys Lipids 67-68 1994 233 239
68. T. Reblin, A. Niemeier, and N. Meyer Cellular uptake of lipoprotein[a] by mouse embryonic fibroblasts via the LDL receptor and the LDL receptor-related protein J Lipid Res 38 1997 2103 2110
69. A. Niemeier, T. Willnow, and H. Dieplinger Identification of megalin/gp330 as a receptor for lipoprotein(a) in vitro Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19 1999 552 561
70. K.M. Argraves, K.F. Kozarsky, and J.T. Fallon The atherogenic lipoprotein Lp(a) is internalized and degraded in a process mediated by the VLDL receptor J Clin Invest 100 1997 2170 2181
71. J.J. Kanalas, and S.P. Makker Identification of the rat Heymann nephritis autoantigen (GP330) as a receptor site for plasminogen J Biol Chem 266 1991 10825 10829
72. H.J. Milionis, Z. Efstathiadou, and A.D. Tselepis Lipoprotein (a) levels and apolipoprotein (a) isoform size in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: effect of treatment with levothyroxine Thyroid 13 2003 365 369
73. L.A. Miles, G.M. Fless, and A.M. Scanu Interaction of Lp(a) with plasminogen binding sites on cells Thromb Haemost 73 1995 458 465
74. A. Ernst, M. Helmhold, and C. Brunner Identification of two functionally distinct lysine-binding sites in kringle 37 and in kringles 32-36 of human apolipoprotein(a) J Biol Chem 270 1995 6227 6234
75. E.F. Plow, L. Doeuvre, and R. Das So many plasminogen receptors: why? J Biomed Biotechnol 2012 In Press
76. R. Das, E. Pluskota, and E.F. Plow Plasminogen and its receptors as regulators of cardiovascular inflammatory responses Trends Cardiovasc Med 20 2010 120 124
77. S. Lighvani, N. Baik, and J.E. Diggs Regulation of macrophage migration by a novel plasminogen receptor Plg-R KT Blood 118 2011 5622 5630
78. K. Oida, H. Takai, and H. Maeda Apolipoprotein(a) is present in urine and its excretion is decreased in patients with renal failure Clin Chem 38 1992 2244 2248
79. V. Mooser, M.C. Seabra, and M. Abedin Apolipoprotein(a) kringle 4-containing fragments in human urine. Relationship to plasma levels of lipoprotein(a) J Clin Invest 97 1996 858 864
80. K.M. Kostner, G. Maurer, and K. Huber Urinary excretion of apo(a) fragments. Role in apo(a) catabolism Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 16 1996 905 911
81. S. Frank, A. Hrzenjak, and A. Blaschitz Role of various tissues in apo(a) fragmentation and excretion of fragments by the kidney Eur J Clin Invest 31 2001 504 512
82. K. Kostner, S. Spitzauer, and H. Rumpold Urinary excretion of apolipoprotein(a): relation to other plasma proteins Clin Chim Acta 304 2001 29 37
83. S. Gonbert, B. Saint-Jore, and P. Giral Molecular analysis of apo(a) fragmentation in polygenic hypercholesterolemia: characterization of a new plasma fragment pattern Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 21 2001 1353 1358
84. K.M. Kostner, S. Banyai, and M. Banyai Urinary apolipoprotein (a) excretion in patients with proteinuria Ann Med 30 1998 497 502
85. T. Reblin, N. Donarski, and L. Fineder Renal handling of human apolipoprotein(a) and its fragments in the rat Am J Kidney Dis 38 2001 619 630
86. A. Hrzenjak, S. Frank, and X. Wo Galactose-specific asialoglycoprotein receptor is involved in lipoprotein (a) catabolism Biochem J 376 2003 765 771
87. W.J. Cain, J.S. Millar, and A.S. Himebauch Lipoprotein [a] is cleared from the plasma primarily by the liver in a process mediated by apolipoprotein [a] J Lipid Res 46 2005 2681 2691
88. C. Edelstein, J.A. Italia, and A.M. Scanu Polymorphonuclear cells isolated from human peripheral blood cleave lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein(a) at multiple interkringle sites via the enzyme elastase. Generation of mini-Lp(a) particles and apo(a) fragments J Biol Chem 272 1997 11079 11087
89. C. Edelstein, S.D. Shapiro, O. Klezovitch, and A.M. Scanu Macrophage metalloelastase, MMP-12, cleaves human apolipoprotein(a) in the linker region between kringles IV-4 and IV-5. Potential relevance to lipoprotein(a) biology J Biol Chem 274 1999 10019 10023
90. J.E. Fortunato, H.S. Bassiouny, and R.H. Song Apolipoprotein (a) fragments in relation to human carotid plaque instability J Vasc Surg 32 2000 555 563
91. H.F. Hoff, J. O'Neil, and A. Yashiro Partial characterization of lipoproteins containing apo[a] in human atherosclerotic lesions J Lipid Res 34 1993 789 798
92. L.B. Nielsen, S. Stender, M. Jauhiainen, and B.G. Nordestgaard Preferential influx and decreased fractional loss of lipoprotein(a) in atherosclerotic compared with nonlesioned rabbit aorta J Clin Invest 98 1996 563 571
93. L.A. Miles, M.T. Sebald, G.M. Fless, A.M. Scanu, L.K. Curtiss, E.F. Plow, and J.L. Hoover-Plow Interaction of lipoprotein(a) with the extracellular matrix Fibrinolysis Proteolysis 12 1997 79 87
94. S. Xue, E.L. Madison, and L.A. Miles The Kringle V-protease domain is a fibrinogen binding region within Apo(a) Thromb Haemost 86 2001 1229 1237
95. A.M. Scanu, C. Edelstein, and O. Klezovitch Dominant role of the C-terminal domain in the binding of apolipoprotein(a) to the protein core of proteoglycans and other members of the vascular matrix Trends Cardiovasc Med 9 1999 196 200
96. J. Hoover-Plow, A. Khaitan, and G.M. Fless Phospholipase A2 modification enhances lipoprotein(a) binding to the subendothelial matrix Thromb Haemost 79 1998 640 648
97. C. Edelstein, M. Yousef, and A.M. Scanu Elements in the C terminus of apolipoprotein [a] responsible for the binding to the tenth type III module of human fibronectin J Lipid Res 46 2005 2673 2680
98. A. Kapetanopoulos, F. Fresser, and G. Millonig Direct interaction of the extracellular matrix protein DANCE with apolipoprotein(a) mediated by the kringle IV-type 2 domain Mol Genet Genomics 267 2002 440 446
99. J. Hoover-Plow Elusive proatherothrombotic role of Lp(a): a new direction? J Thromb Haemost 4 2006 971 972
100. S.D. Hughes, X.J. Lou, and S. Ighani Lipoprotein(a) vascular accumulation in mice. In vivo analysis of the role of lysine binding sites using recombinant adenovirus J Clin Invest 100 1997 1493 1500
101. X.J. Lou, N.W. Boonmark, and F.T. Horrigan Fibrinogen deficiency reduces vascular accumulation of apolipoprotein(a) and development of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein(a) transgenic mice Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 1998 12591 12595
102. K. Bdeir, W. Cane, and G. Canziani Defensin promotes the binding of lipoprotein(a) to vascular matrix Blood 94 1999 2007 2019
103. A. D'Angelo, D. Geroldi, and M.A. Hancock The apolipoprotein(a) component of lipoprotein(a) mediates binding to laminin: contribution to selective retention of lipoprotein(a) in atherosclerotic lesions Biochim Biophys Acta 1687 2005 1 10
104. K. Kotani, S. Yamada, and T. Yamada The relationship between oxidized lipoprotein(a) and carotid atherosclerosis in asymptomatic subjects: a comparison with native lipoprotein(a) Lipids Health Dis 10 2011 174
105. T. Umahara, T. Uchihara, and S. Yamada Differential expression of oxidized/native lipoprotein(a) and plasminogen in human carotid and cerebral artery plaques Atherosclerosis 215 2011 392 398
106. M. Bossola, L. Tazza, and G. Luciani OxPL/apoB, lipoprotein(a) and OxLDL biomarkers and cardiovascular disease in chronic hemodialysis patients J Nephrol 24 2011 581 588
107. M.E. Haberland, G.M. Fless, A.M. Scanu, and A.M. Fogelman Malondialdehyde modification of lipoprotein(a) produces avid uptake by human monocyte-macrophages J Biol Chem 267 1992 4143 4151
108. M. Naruszewicze, L.M. Giroux, and J. Davignon Oxidative modification of Lp(a) causes changes in the structure and biological properties of apo(a) Chem Phys Lipids 67-68 1994 167 174
109. A.M. O'Connell, S.P. Gieseg, and K.K. Stanley Hypochlorite oxidation causes cross-linking of Lp(a) Biochim Biophys Acta 1225 1994 180 186
110. C. Bas Leerink, P.F. Duif, and J.A. Gimpel Lysine-binding heterogeneity of Lp(a): consequences for fibrin binding and inhibition of plasminogen activation Thromb Haemost 68 1992 185 188
111. I. Karmansky, and N. Gruener Structure and possible biological roles of Lp(a) Clin Biochem 27 1994 151 162
112. J.M. Simo, J. Joven, and E. Vilella Impact of apolipoprotein(a) isoform size heterogeneity on the lysine binding function of lipoprotein(a) in early onset coronary artery disease Thromb Haemost 85 2001 412 417
113. C. Blencowe, A. Hermetter, G.M. Kostner, and H.P. Deigner Enhanced association of platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase with lipoprotein (a) in comparison with low density lipoprotein J Biol Chem 270 1995 31151 31157
114. M. Schneider, J.L. Witztum, and S.G. Young High-level lipoprotein [a] expression in transgenic mice: evidence for oxidized phospholipids in lipoprotein [a] but not in low density lipoproteins J Lipid Res 46 2005 769 778
115. G. Lippi, M. Franchini, and G. Targher Arterial thrombus formation in cardiovascular disease Nat Rev Cardiol 8 2011 502 512
116. G. Lippi, G. Targher, and G.L. Salvagno Lipoprotein(a) and ageing Clin Lab 56 2010 463 466
117. H. Cicek, S. Bayil, and Y. Zer Comparison of lipoprotein(a) levels between elderly and middle-aged men with coronary artery disease Ann N Y Acad Sci 1100 2007 179 184
118. C. Fievet, J.C. Fruchart, and B. Staels PPARalpha and PPARgamma dual agonists for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome Curr Opin Pharmacol 6 2006 606 614
119. R. Ramharack, M.A. Spahr, and G.W. Hicks Gemfibrozil significantly lowers cynomolgus monkey plasma lipoprotein[a]-protein and liver apolipoprotein[a] mRNA levels J Lipid Res 36 1995 1294 1304
120. C.P. Cannon, S. Shah, and H.M. Dansky Safety of anacetrapib in patients with or at high risk for coronary heart disease N Engl J Med 363 2010 2406 2415
121. H. Shinkai Cholesteryl ester transfer-protein modulator and inhibitors and their potential for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases Vasc Health Risk Manag 8 2012 323 331