Stable carbon isotopes of C3 plant resins and ambers record changes in atmospheric oxygen since the Triassic

Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta

Volumn 121, Issue , 2013, Pages 240-262

  Tappert, Ralf ^a,b   McKellar, Ryan C ^a,c   Wolfe, Alexander P ^a   Tappert, Michelle C ^a   Ortega Blanco, Jaime ^c,d   Muehlenbachs, Karlis ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK   (Austria)

^c UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMBER; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBON ISOTOPE; CENOZOIC; CRETACEOUS; EOCENE; FRACTIONATION; ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION; LARGE IGNEOUS PROVINCE; MESOZOIC; OXYGEN; RESIN; STABLE ISOTOPE; TRIASSIC; VOLCANISM;

BURSERA FAGAROIDES;

EID: 84883492868     PISSN: 00167037     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.gca.2013.07.011     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. Alonso J., Arillo A., Barron E., Corral J.C., Grimalt J., Lopez J.F., Lopez R., Martinez-Delclos X., Ortuno V., Penalver E., Trincao P.R. A new fossil resin with biological inclusions in lower Cretaceous deposits from Alava (Northern Spain, Basque-Cantabrian Basin). J. Paleontol. 2000, 74:158-178.
2. Anderson K.B. The nature and fate of natural resins in the geosphere-XII. Investigation of C-ring aromatic diterpenoids in Raritan amber by pyrolysis-GC-matrix isolation FTIR-MS. Geochem. Trans. 2006, 7:2.
3. Anderson K.B., Botto R.E. The nature and fate of natural resins in the geosphere-III. Re-evaluation of the structure and composition of Highgate Copalite and Glessite. Org. Geochem. 1993, 20:1027-1038.
4. Anderson K.B., LePage B.A. Analysis of fossil resins from Axel Heiberg Island, Canadian Arctic. Amber, Resinite, and Fossil Resins 1995, 170-192. American Chemical Society, Washington. K.B. Anderson, J.C. Crelling (Eds.).
5. Anderson K.B., Winans R.E., Botto R.E. The nature and fate of natural resins in the geosphere-II. Identification, classification and nomenclature of resinites. Org. Geochem. 1992, 18:829-841.
6. 2 at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary: evidence from terrestrial sediments. Palaios 2000, 15:314-322.
7. Arens N.C., Jahren A.H., Amundson R. Can C3 plants faithfully record the carbon isotopic composition of atmospheric carbon dioxide?. Paleobiology 2000, 26:137-164.
8. Azar D., Gèze R., Acra F. Lebanese amber. Biodiversity of Fossils in Amber from the Major World Deposits 2010, 271-298. Siri Scientific Press, Manchester. D. Penney (Ed.).
9. Bechtel A., Gratzer R., Sachsenhofer R.F., Gusterhuber J., Lücke A., Püttmann W. Biomarker and carbon isotope variation in coal and fossil wood of Central Europe through the Cenozoic. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2008, 262:166-175.
10. Beck C.W. Spectroscopic investigation of amber. Appl. Spec. Rev. 1986, 22:57-110.
11. Beck C.W., Wilbur E., Meret S., Kossove D., Kermani K. The infrared spectra of amber and the identification of Baltic amber. Archaeometry 1965, 8:96-109.
12. 13C discrimination by fossil leaves during the late-glacial climate oscillation 12-10ka BP: measurements and physiological controls. Oecologia 1996, 108:29-37.
13. Beerling D.J., Royer D.L. Fossil plants as indicators of the Phanerozoic global carbon cycle. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2002, 30:527-556.
14. Beerling D.J., Woodward F.I. Ecophysiological responses of plants to global environmental change since the last glacial maximum. New Phytol. 1993, 125:641-648.
15. 2 ratios in the Permo-Carboniferous atmosphere. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2002, 66:3757-3767.
16. 2 redefine paleoatmospheric predictions for the Mesozoic. Science 2008, 321:1197-1200.
17. Bemis B.E., Spero H.J., Bijma J., Lea D.W. Reevaluation of the oxygen isotopic composition of planktonic foraminifera: experimental results and revised paleotemperature equations. Paleoceanography 1998, 13:150-160.
18. 13C in lignin and its implications for stable carbon isotope studies. Nature 1987, 329:708-710.
19. Berner R.A. Atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1999, 96:10955-10957.
20. 2. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2006, 70:5653-5664.
21. Berner R.A., Canfield D.E. A new model for atmospheric oxygen over Phanerozoic time. Am. J. Sci. 1989, 289:333-361.
22. 2 over Phanerozoic time. Am. J. Sci. 2001, 301:182-204.
23. 2 evolution. Science 2000, 287:1630-1633.
24. Berner R.A., VandenBrooks J.M., Ward P.D. Oxygen and evolution. Science 2007, 316:557-558.
25. Berry J.A., Troughton J.H., Björkman O. Effect of oxygen concentration during growth on carbon isotope discrimination in C3 and C4 species of Atriplex. Carnegie Inst. Washington Yearb. 1972, 71:158-161.
26. 2 paleobarometry. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 2004, 18:GB1026.
27. Bray P.S., Anderson K.B. Identification of Carboniferous (320 million years old) class Ic amber. Science 2009, 326:132-134.
28. Broughton P.L. Conceptual framework for geographic-botanical affinities of fossil resin. Can. J. Earth Sci. 1974, 11:583-594.
29. Brown S.A.E., Scott A.C., Glasspool I.J., Collinson M.E. Cretaceous wildfires and their impact on the Earth system. Cretaceous Res. 2012, 36:162-190.
30. Brugnoli E., Farquhar G.D. Photosynthetic fractionation of carbon isotopes. Photosynthesis: Physiology and Metabolism 2000, 399-434. Kluwer Academic, Publishers. R.C. Leegood, T.D. Sharkey, S. Von Caemmerer (Eds.).
31. Cerling T.E., Hay R.L. An isotopic study of paleosol carbonates from Olduvai Gorge. Quat. Res. 1986, 25:63-78.
32. Clapham M.E., Karr J.A. Environmental and biotic controls on the evolutionary history of insect body size. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2012, 109:10927-10930.
33. Clarke L.J., Jenkyns H.C. New oxygen isotope evidence for long-term Cretaceous climatic change in the Southern Hemisphere. Geology 1999, 27:699-702.
34. Coplen T.B., Kendall C., Hopple J. Comparison of stable isotope reference samples. Nature 1983, 302:236-238.
35. Cruickshank R.D., Ko K. Geology of an amber locality in the Hukawng Valley. Northern Myanmar. J. Asian Earth Sci. 2003, 21:441-455.
36. 13C NMR and IR analyses of structure, aging and botanical origin of Dominican and Mexican ambers. Phytochem. 1983, 22:965-968.
37. DalCorso J., Preto N., Kustatscher E., Mietto P., Roghi G., Jenkyns H.C. Carbon-isotope variability of Triassic amber, as compared with wood and leaves (Southern Alps, Italy). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 2011, 302:187-193.
38. Dawson T.E., Mambelli S., Plamboeck A.H., Templer P.H., Tu K.P. Stable isotopes in plant ecology. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2002, 33:507-559.
39. DeConto R.M., Galeotti S., Pagani M., Tracy D., Schaefer K., Zhang T., Pollard D., Beerling D.J. Past extreme warming events linked to massive carbon release from thawing permafrost. Nature 2012, 484:87-92.
40. Dickens G.R., Castillo M.M., Walker J.C.G. A blast of gas in the latest Paleocene; simulating first-order effects of massive dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate. Geology 1997, 25:259-262.
41. Dickens G.R., O'Neil J.R., Rea D.K., Owen R.M. Dissociation of oceanic methane hydrate as a cause of the carbon isotope excursion at the end of the Paleocene. Paleoceanography 1995, 10:965-971.
42. Diefendorf A.F., Freeman K.H., Wing S.L. Distribution and carbon isotope patterns of diterpenoids and triterpenoids in modern temperate C3 trees and their geological significance. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2012, 85:342-356.
43. 13C discrimination and implications for studies of past and future climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2010, 107:5738-5743.
44. 13C response surface resolves humidity and temperature signals in trees. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2000, 64:161-167.
45. Ekart D.D., Cerling T.E., Montanez I.P., Tabor N. A 400 million year carbon isotope record of pedogenic carbonate: implications for paleoatmospheric carbon dioxide. Am. J. Sci. 1999, 299:805-827.
46. Emiliani C. Pleistocene temperatures. J. Geol. 1955, 63:538-578.
47. Exley R.A., Mattey D.P., Clague D.A., Pillinger C.T. Carbon isotope systematics of a mantle hotspot: a comparison of Loihi seamount and MORB glasses. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1986, 78:189-199.
48. Falkowski P.G., Katz M.E., Milligan A.J., Fennel K., Cramer B.S., Aubry M.P., Berner R.A., Novacek M.J., Zapol W.M. The rise of oxygen over the past 205 million years and the evolution of large placental mammals. Science 2005, 309:2202-2204.
49. Farquhar G.D., Ehleringer J.R., Hubick K.T. Carbon isotope discrimination and photosynthesis. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol. 1989, 40:503-537.
50. Farquhar G.D., O'Leary M.H., Berry J.A. On the relationship between carbon isotope discrimination and the intercellular carbon dioxide concentration in leaves. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 1982, 9:121-137.
51. 2. Tellus 1999, 51B:170-193.
52. Francis J.E. A 50 million-year old fossil forest from Strathcona Fiord, Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada: evidence for a warm polar climate. Arctic 1988, 41:314-318.
53. Fuhrmann R. Die Bernsteinlagerstätte Bitterfeld, nur ein Höhepunkt des Vorkommens von Bernstein (Succinit) im Tertiär Mitteldeutschlands. Z. Deutsch. Gesell. Geowiss. 2005, 156:517-529.
54. Glasspool I.J., Scott A.C. Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal. Nat. Geosci. 2010, 3:627-630.
55. Graham J.B., Dudley R., Aguilar N., Gans C. Implications of the Late Paleozoic oxygen pulse for physiology and evolution. Nature 1995, 375:117-120.
56. Grimaldi D., Beck C.W., Boon J.J. Occurrence, chemical characteristics, and paleontology of the fossil resins from New Jersey. Am. Mus. Novit. 1989, 2948. 28 pp.
57. Grimaldi D., Engel M.S., Nascimbene P. Fossiliferous Cretaceous amber from Myanmar (Burma): its rediscovery, biotic diversity, and paleontological significance. Am. Mus. Novit. 2002, 3361. 72 pp.
58. Gröcke D.R. Carbon-isotope analyses of fossil plants as a chemostratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental tool. Lethaia 1998, 31:1-13.
59. Gröcke D.R. Carbon-isotope composition of Lower Cretaceous fossil wood: ocean-atmosphere chemistry and relation to sea-level change. Geology 1999, 27:155-158.
60. 2 based on higher-plant organic matter. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 2002, 360:633-658.
61. Guy R.D., Reid D.M., Krouse H.R. Shifts in carbon isotope ratios of two C3 halophytes under natural and artificial conditions. Oecologia 1980, 44:241-247.
62. Halevy I., Peters S.E., Fischer W.W. Sulfate burial constraints on the Phanerozoic sulfur cycle. Science 2012, 337:331-334.
63. 2. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 2003, 189:97-115.
64. Higgins J.A., Schrag D.P. Beyond methane: towards a theory for the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2006, 245:523-537.
65. Huber B.T., Hodell D.A., Hamilton C.P. Middle-Late Cretaceous climate of southern high latitudes: stable isotopic evidence for minimal equatorial-to-pole thermal gradients. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1995, 107:1164-1191.
66. Iturralde-Vinent M.A., MacPhee R.D.E. Age and paleogeographical origin of Dominican amber. Science 1996, 273:1852.
67. Jahren A.H. The biogeochemical consequences of the mid-Cretaceous superplume. J. Geodyn. 2002, 34:177-191.
68. 2 using fossil plant tissues. Rev. Geophys. 2008, 46:RG1002.
69. Javoy M., Pineau F. The volatiles record of a popping rock from the mid-Atlantic ridge at 14°N: chemical and isotopic composition of gas trapped in the vesicles. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1991, 107:598-611.
70. Jenkyns H.C. Cretaceous anoxic events: from continents to oceans. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 1980, 137:171-188.
71. Jones T.P., Chaloner W.G. Fossil charcoal, its recognition and palaeoatmospheric significance. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 1991, 97:39-50.
72. Körner C., Farquhar G.D., Wong S.C. Carbon isotope discrimination by plants follows latitudinal and altitudinal trends. Oecologia 1991, 88:30-40.
73. Kohn M.J. Carbon isotope compositions of terrestrial C3 plants as indicators of (paleo)ecology and (paleo)climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2010, 107:19691-19695.
74. 18O values of Triassic brachiopods and carbonate rocks as proxies for coeval seawater and paleotemperature. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 2005, 226:287-306.
75. Kurtz A.C., Kump L.R., Arthur M.A., Zachos J.C., Paytan A. Early Cenozoic decoupling of the global carbon and sulfur cycles. Paleoceanography 2003, 18:1090.
76. Lambert J.B., Johnson S.C., Poinar G.O. Resins from Africa and South America: criteria for distinguishing between fossilized and recent resin based on NMR spectroscopy. Amber, Resinites, and Fossil Resins 1995, 193-202. American Chemical Society, Washington. K.B. Anderson, J.C. Crelling (Eds.).
77. Lambert J.B., Santiago-Blay J.A., Anderson K.B. Chemical signatures of fossilized resins and recent plant exudates. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2008, 47:9608-9616.
78. Langenheim J.H. Plant resins: chemistry, evolution, ecology, ethnobotany 2003, Timber Press, Portland.
79. Langenheim J.H., Beck C.W. Infrared spectra as a means of determining botanical sources of amber. Science 1965, 149:52-55.
80. Larson R.L., Erba E. Onset of the mid-Cretaceous greenhouse in the Barremian-Aptian: igneous events and the biological, sedimentary, and geochemical responses. Paleoceanography 1999, 14:663-678.
81. Leckie R.M., Bralower T.J., Cashman R. Oceanic anoxic events and plankton evolution: biotic response to tectonic forcing during the mid-Cretaceous. Paleoceanography 2002, 17:PA000623.
82. Li L., Keller G. Variability in Late Cretaceous climate and deep waters: evidence from stable isotopes. Mar. Geol. 1999, 161:171-190.
83. Loader N.J., Robertson I., McCarroll D. Comparison of stable carbon isotope ratios in the whole wood, cellulose and lignin of oak tree rings. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 2003, 196:395-407.
84. 2 signature of air. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 2012, 13:Q0AI03.
85. Lücke A., Helle G., Schleser G.H., Figueiral I., Mosbrugger V., Jones T.P., Rowe N.P. Environmental history of the German Lower Rhine Embayment during the Middle Miocene as reflected by carbon isotopes in brown coal. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 1999, 154:339-352.
86. McInerney F.A., Wing S.L. The Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum: a perturbation of carbon cycle, climate, and biosphere with implications for the future. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2011, 39:489-516.
87. McKellar R.C., Wolfe A.P. Canadian amber. Biodiversity of Fossils in Amber 2010, 149-166. Siri Scientific Press. D. Penney (Ed.).
88. McKellar R.C., Wolfe A.P., Muehlenbachs K., Tappert R., Engel M.S., Cheng T., Sanchez-Azofeifa G.A. Insect outbreaks produce distinctive carbon isotope signature in defensive resins and fossiliferous ambers. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 2011, 278:3219-3224.
89. McKellar R.C., Wolfe A.P., Tappert R., Muehlenbachs K. Correlation between Grassy Lake and Cedar Lake ambers using infrared spectroscopy, stable isotopes, and palaeoentomology. Can. J. Earth Sci. 2008, 45:1061-1082.
90. 13C values of leaves in Amazonian rain forests. Oecologia 1980, 45:377-378.
91. Murray A.P., Edwards D., Hope J.M., Boreham C.J., Booth W.E., Alexander R.A., Summons R.E. Carbon isotope biogeochemistry of plant resins and derived hydrocarbons. Org. Geochem. 1998, 29:1199-1214.
92. Mustoe G.E. Eocene amber from the Pacific coast of North America. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1985, 96:1530-1536.
93. Nicholas C.J., Henwood A.A., Simpson M. A new discovery of Early Cretaceous (Wealden) amber from the Isle of Wight. Geol. Mag. 1993, 130:847-850.
94. Nissenbaum A., Horowitz A. The Levantine amber belt. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 1992, 14:295-300.
95. Nissenbaum A., Yakir D. Stable isotope composition of amber. Amber Resinite and Fossil Resins 1995, 32-42. American Chemical Society, Washington.
96. Nissenbaum A., Yakir D., Langenheim J.H. Bulk carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen stable isotope composition of recent resins from amber-producing Hymenaea. Naturwissenschaften 2005, 92:26-29.
97. O'Leary M.H. Carbon isotope fractionation in plants. Phytochemistry 1981, 20:553-567.
98. O'Leary M.H. Carbon isotopes in photosynthesis. BioScience 1988, 38:325-336.
99. Pagani M., Zachos J.C., Freeman K.H., Tipple B., Bohaty S. Marked decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations during the Paleogene. Science 2005, 309:600-603.
100. Park R., Epstein S. Carbon isotope fractionation during photosynthesis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1960, 21:110-126.
101. Pearson P.N., Palmer N.R. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years. Nature 2000, 406:695-699.
102. 13C record and plant evolution in the Late Palaeozoic. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 2006, 240:237-252.
103. Petit J.R., Jouzel J., Raynaud D., Barkov N.I., Barnola J.M., Basile I., Bender M., Chappellaz J., Davis M., Delaygue G., Delmotte M., Kotlyakov V.M., Legrand M., Lipenkov V.Y., Lorius C., Pepin L., Ritz C., Saltzman E., Stievenard M. Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica. Nature 1999, 399:429-436.
104. Poole I., Dolezych M., Kool J., Van der Burgh J., Van Bergen P.F. Do stable carbon isotopes of brown coal woods record changes in Lower Miocene palaeoecology?. Paleogeogr. Paleoclimatol. Paleoecol. 2006, 236:345-354.
105. Poole I., Van Bergen P.F. Physiognomic and chemical characters in wood as palaeoclimate proxies. Plant Ecol. 2006, 182:175-195.
106. Poulin J., Helwig K. Class Id resinite from Canada: a new sub-class containing succinic acid. Org. Geochem. 2012, 44:37-44.
107. Ragazzi E., Roghi G., Giaretta A., Gianolla P. Classification of amber based on thermal analysis. Thermochim. Acta 2003, 404:43-54.
108. Retallack G.J. A 300-million-year record of atmospheric carbon dioxide from fossil plant cuticles. Nature 2001, 411:287-290.
109. Retallack G.J. Carbon dioxide and climate over the past 300Myr. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A 2002, 360:659-673.
110. Roghi G., Ragazzi E., Gianolla P. Triassic amber of the Southern Alps (Italy). Palaios 2006, 21:143-154.
111. 2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2006, 70:5665-5675.
112. 2 change: evaluating geochemical and paleobiological approaches. Earth Sci. Rev. 2001, 54:349-392.
113. Rust J., Singh H., Rana R.S., McCann T., Singh L., Anderson K., Sarkar N., Nascimbene P.C., Stebner F., Thomas J.C., Solórzano Kraemer M., Williams C.J., Engel M.S., Sahnie A., Grimaldi D. Biogeographic and evolutionary implications of a diverse paleobiota in amber from the Early Eocene of India. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107:18360-18365.
114. Schlee D., Chan P.H. Riesenbernsteine in Sarawak, Nord-Borneo. Lapis 1992, 9:13-22.
115. Schleser G.H., Frielingsdorf J., Blair A. Carbon isotope behaviour in wood and cellulose during artificial aging. Chem. Geol. 1999, 158:121-130.
116. 2 concentration on carbon isotope fractionation in C3 land plants. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2012, 96:29-43.
117. Self S., Thordarson T., Widdowson M. Gas fluxes from flood basalt eruptions. Elements 2005, 1:283-287.
118. Sloan L.C., Walker J.C.G., Moore T.C.J., Rea D.K., Zachos J.C. Possible methane-induced warming in the Early Eocene. Nature 1992, 357:320-322.
119. 13C ratios in plant tissues. Bot. Gaz. 1976, 137:99-104.
120. Solórzano Kraemer M.M. Systematic, palaeoecology, and palaeobiogeography of the insect fauna from Mexican amber. Palaeontographica A 2007, 282:1-133.
121. Stach E., Mackowsky M.T., Teichmüller M., Taylor G.H., Chandra D., Teichmüller R. Stach's Textbook of Coal Petrology 1982, Gebruder Thonet, Berlin.
122. Strauss H., Peters-Kottig W. The Paleozoic to Mesozoic carbon cycle revisited: the carbon isotopic composition of terrestrial organic matter. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 2003, 4:15 pp..
123. 12C isotope ratios and climatic change. Nature 1987, 328:58-60.
124. Svensen H., Planke S., Malthe-Sorenssen A., Jamtveit B., Myklebust R., Eidem T.R., Rey S.S. Release of methane from a volcanic basin as a mechanism for initial Eocene global warming. Nature 2004, 429:542-545.
125. 2 inventory of the surface oceans. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37:L05604.
126. Symonds R.B., Rose W.I., Bluth G.J.S., Gerlach T.M. Volcanic-gas studies: methods, results, and applications. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 1994, 30:1-66.
127. Tappert R., Wolfe A.P., McKellar R.C., Tappert M.C., Muehlenbachs K. Characterizing modern and fossil gymnosperm exudates using micro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Int. J. Plant Sci. 2011, 172:120-138.
128. Thomas B.R. Modern and fossil plant resins. Phytochemical Phylogeny 1970, 59-79. Academic Press, New York. J.B. Harborne (Ed.).
129. 2: a comparative evaluation of available geochemical proxies. Paleoceanography 2010, 25:PA3202.
130. Triplehorn D.M., Turner D.L., Naeser C.W. Radiometric age of the Chickaloon formation of south-central Alaska: location of Paleocene-Eocene boundary. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 1984, 95:740-742.
131. 2 on a millennium-long tree-ring carbon isotope record. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2009, 73:4635-4647.
132. 2 and palaeoclimate: a Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous carbon and oxygen isotope record. J. Geol. Soc. Lond. 2004, 161:1-8.
133. Westerhold T., Rohl U., McCarren H.K., Zachos J.C. Latest on the absolute age of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM): new insights from exact stratigraphic position of key ash layers +19 and -17. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2009, 287:412-419.
134. White D. Resins in Paleozoic plants and in coals of high rank. US Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 1914, 85:65-83.
135. Wilson P.A., Norris R.D. Warm tropical ocean surface and global anoxia during the mid-Cretaceous period. Nature 2001, 412:425-429.
136. Wolfe A.P., Csank A.Z., Reyes A.V., McKellar R.C., Tappert R., Muehlenbachs K. Pristine Early Eocene wood buried deeply in kimberlite from Northern Canada. PLoS ONE 2012, 7:e45537.
137. Wolfe A.P., Tappert R., Muehlenbachs K., Boudreau M., McKellar R.C., Basinger J.F., Garrett A. A new proposal concerning the botanical origin of Baltic amber. Proc. R. Soc. Ser. B 2009, 276:3403-3412.
138. Zachos J., Dickens G.R., Zeebee R.E. An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics. Nature 2008, 451:279-283.
139. Zachos J., Pagani M., Sloan L., Thomas E., Billups K. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65Ma to present. Science 2001, 292:686-693.