The HIV-1 epidemic: Low- to middle-income countries

Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine

Volumn 2, Issue 3, 2012, Pages

  Shao, Yiming ^a   Williamson, Carolyn ^b  

^a CHINESE CENTER FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (China)

^b NATIONAL HEALTH LABORATORY SERVICE   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS VACCINE;

ANTIVIRAL RESISTANCE; ARTICLE; COST OF LIVING; CYTOTOXIC T LYMPHOCYTE; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DISEASE CONTROL; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; EPIDEMIC; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTH CARE ORGANIZATION; HIGH RISK BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INCOME; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION RISK; MUTATION; NONHUMAN; PHENOTYPE; QUALITY OF LIFE; SOCIOECONOMICS; UNPROTECTED SEX; VIRUS PATHOGENESIS; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ASIA; CENTRAL AMERICA; DISEASE COURSE; EASTERN EUROPE; ECONOMICS; HEALTH; MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY; POVERTY; PREVALENCE; SOUTH AMERICA;

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1;

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ASIA; CARIBBEAN REGION; CENTRAL AMERICA; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; EUROPE, EASTERN; GENETIC VARIATION; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY; POVERTY; PREVALENCE; SOUTH AMERICA; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 84883049428     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21571422     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a007187     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Abdool Karim Q, Kharsany AB, Frohlich JA, Werner L, Mashego M, Mlotshwa M, Madlala BT, Ntombela F, Abdool Karim SS. 2010. Stabilizing HIV prevalence masks high HIV incidence rates amongst rural and urban women in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Int J Epidemiol doi: 10. 1093/ije/dyq176.
2. Aulicino PC, Holmes EC, Rocco C, Mangano A, Sen L. 2007. Extremely rapid spread of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 BF recombinants in Argentina. J Virol 81: 427-429.
3. Auvert B, Taljaard D, Lagarde E, Sobngwi-Tambekou J, Sitta R, Puren A. 2005. Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: The ANRS 1265 trial. PLoS Med 2: e298. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pmed. 0020298.
4. Barouch DH, O'Brien KL, Simmons NL, King SL, Abbink P, Maxfield LF, Sun YH, La Porte A, Riggs AM, Lynch DM, et al. 2010. Mosaic HIV-1 vaccines expand the breadth and depth of cellular immune responses in rhesus monkeys. Nat Med 16: 319-323.
5. Bennett DE, Bertagnolio S, Sutherland D, Gilks CF. 2008. The World Health Organization's global strategy for prevention and assessment of HIV drug resistance. Antivir Ther 13: 1-13.
6. Bobkov A, Kazennova E, Khanina T, Bobkova M, Selimova L, Kravchenko A, Pokrovsky V, Weber J. 2001. An HIV type 1 subtype A strain of low genetic diversity continues to spread among injecting drug users in Russia: Study of the new local outbreaks in Moscow and Irkutsk. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 17: 257-261.
7. Booth CL, Geretti AM. 2007. Prevalence and determinants of transmitted antiretroviral drug resistance in HIV-1 infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 59: 1047-1056.
8. Brenner BG, Oliveira M, Doualla-Bell F, Moisi DD, Ntemgwa M, Frankel F, EssexM, Wainberg MA. 2006. HIV-1 subtype C viruses rapidly develop K65R resistance to tenofovir in cell culture. AIDS 20: F9-F13.
9. Cáceres CF, Mendoza W. 2009. The national response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Peru: Accomplishments and gaps-A review. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 51: S60-S66.
10. Carr JK, Wolfe ND, Torimiro JN, Tamoufe U, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Eyzaguirre L, BirxDL, McCutchan FE, Burke DS. 2010. HIV-1 recombinants with multiple parental strains in low-prevalence, remote regions of Cameroon: Evolutionary relics?Retrovirology 7: 39.
11. Chan R, Kavi AR, Carl G, Khan S, Oetomo D, Tan ML, Brown T. 1998. HIV and men who have sex with men: Perspectives from selected Asian countries. AIDS12: 59-68.
12. China Ministry of Health, UNAIDS, WHO. 2009. Estimates for the HIV/AIDS epidemic in China. http: //www. unaids. org. cn/en/index/Document_view. asp?id=413.
13. Cui W, Xing H, Wang Zh, Huang H, Li H, Ma P, Xue X, Wei M, Zhu X, Shao Y. 2004. Study on subtype and sequence of the C2-V3 region of env gene among HIV-1 strains in Henan Province. Chin J AIDS STD 10: 403-406.
14. Colby DJ. 2003. HIV knowledge and risk factors among men who have sex with men in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 32: 80-85.
15. Crofts N, Reid G, Deany P. 1998. Injecting drug use and HIV infection in Asia. AIDS 12: 69-78.
16. De Oliveira T, Pillay D, Gifford RJ. UK Collaborative Group on HIV Drug Resistance. 2010. The HIV-1 subtype C epidemic in South America is linked to the United Kingdom. PLoS One 19: 9311. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0009311.
17. Dore GJ, Kaldor JM, Ungchusak K, Mertens TE. 1996. Epidemiology of HIV and AIDS in the Asia-Pacific region. Med J Aust 165: 494-498.
18. Doualla-Bell F, Avalos A, Brenner B, Gaolathe T, Mine M, Gaseitsiwe S, OliveiraM, Moisi D, Ndwapi N, Moffat H, et al. 2006. High prevalence of the K65R mutation in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C isolates from infected patients in Botswana treated with didanosine-based regimens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50: 4182-4185.
19. Dowling WE, Kim B, Mason CJ, Wasunna KM, Alam U, Elson L, Birx DL, RobbML, McCutchan FE, Carr JK. 2002. Forty-one near full-length HIV-1 sequences from Kenya reveal an epidemic of subtype A and A-containing recombinants. AIDS 16: 1809-1820.
20. Estebanez P, Fitch K, Najera R. 1993. HIV and female sex workers. Bull World Health Organ 71: 397-412.
21. Ferradini L, Jeannin A, Pinoges L, Izopet J, Odhiambo D, Mankhambo L, Karungi G, Szumilin E, Balandine S, Fedida G, et al. 2006. Scaling up of highly active antiretroviral therapy in a rural district of Malawi: An effectiveness assessment. Lancet 367: 1335-1342.
22. Gaschen B, Taylor J, Yusim K, Foley B, Gao F, Lang D, Novitsky V, Haynes B, Hahn BH, Bhattacharya T, et al. 2002. Diversity considerations in HIV-1 vaccine selection. Science 296: 2354-2360.
23. Girault P, Saidel T, Song N, de Lind Van Wijngaarden JW, Dallabetta G, Stuer F, Mills S, Or V, Grosjean P, Glaziou P, et al. 2004. HIV, STIs, and sexual behaviors among men who have sex with men in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. AIDS Educ Prev 16: 31-44.
24. Gottlieb GS, Nickle DC, Jensen MA, Wong KG, Grobler J, Li F, Liu SL, RademeyerC, Learn GH, Karim SS, et al. 2004. Dual HIV-1 infection associated with rapid disease progression. Lancet 363: 619-622.
25. Gouws E, Abdool Karim Q. 2010. HIV infection in South Africa: The evolving epidemic. In HIV/AIDS in South Africa, 2nd ed., pp. 55-73. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
26. Gray RH, Kigozi G, Serwadda D, Makumbi F, Watya S, Nalugoda F, Kiwanuka N, Moulton LH, Chaudhary MA, Chen MZ, et al. 2007. Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: A randomised trial. Lancet 369: 657-666.
27. Gray RR, Tatem AJ, Lamers S, Hou W, Laeyendecker O, Serwadda D, Sewankambo N, Gray RH, Wawer M, Quinn TC, et al. 2009. Spatial phylodynamics of HIV-1 epidemic emergence in East Africa. AIDS 23: F9-F17.
28. Gregson S, Nyamukapa CA, Garnett GP, Mason PR, Zhuwau T, Caraël M, Chandiwana SK, Anderson RM. 2002. Sexual mixing patterns and sex-differentials in teenage exposure to HIV infection in rural Zimbabwe. Lancet 359: 1896-1903.
29. Grobler J, Gray CM, Rademeyer C, Seoighe C, Ramjee G, Karim SA, Morris L, Williamson C. 2004. Incidence of HIV-1 dual infection and its association with increased viral load set point in a cohort of HIV-1 subtype C-infected female sex workers. J Infect Dis 190: 1355-1359.
30. Gupta RK, Chrystie IL, O'Shea S, Mullen JE, Kulasegaram R, Tong CY. 2005. K65R and Y181C are less prevalent in HAART-experienced HIV-1 subtype A patients. AIDS 19: 1916-1919.
31. Hacker MA, Malta M, Enriquez M, Bastos FI. 2005. Human immunodeficiency virus, AIDS, and drug consumption in South America and the Caribbean: Epidemiological evidence and initiatives to curb the epidemic. Rev Panam Salud Publica 18: 303-313.
32. Hamers RL, Derdelinckx I, van Vugt M, Stevens W, Rinke de Wit TF, SchuurmanR. 2008. The status of HIV-1 resistance to antiretroviral drugs in sub-Saharan Africa. Antivir Ther 13: 625-639.
33. Hemelaar J, Gouws E, Ghys PD, Osmanov S. 2006. Global and regional distribution of HIV-1 genetic subtypes and recombinants in 2004. AIDS 20: W13-W23.
34. Herbeck JT, Lyagoba F, Moore SW, Shindo N, Biryahwaho B, Kaleebu P, MullinsJI. 2007. Prevalence and genetic diversity of HIV type 1 subtypes A and D in women attending antenatal clinics in Uganda. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 23: 755-760.
35. Herbinger KH, Gerhardt M, Piyasirisilp S, Mloka D, Arroyo MA, Hoffmann O, Maboko L, Birx DL, Mmbando D, McCutchan FE, et al. 2006. Frequency of HIV type 1 dual infection and HIV diversity: Analysis of low-and high-risk populations in Mbeya Region, Tanzania. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 22: 599-606.
36. Inocencio LA, Pereira AA, Sucupira MC, Fernandez JC, Jorge CP, Souza DF, FinkHT, Diaz RS, Becker IM, Suffert TA, et al. 2009. Brazilian network for HIV drug resistance surveillance: A survey of individuals recently diagnosed with HIV. J Int AIDS Soc 12: 20.
37. Kaleebu P, French N, Mahe C, Yirrell D, Watera C, Lyagoba F, Nakiyingi J, Rutebemberwa A, Morgan D, Weber J, et al. 2002. Effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 envelope subtypes A and D on disease progression in a large cohort of HIV-1-positive persons in Uganda. J Infect Dis 185: 1244-1250.
38. Kaleebu P, Abimiku A, El-Halabi S, Koulla-Shiro S, Mamotte N, Mboup S, Mugerwa R, Nkengasong J, Toure-Kane C, Tucker T, et al. 2008. African AIDS vaccine programme for a coordinated and collaborative vaccine development effort on the continent. PLoS Med 5: e236. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pmed. 0050236.
39. Kamoto K, Aberle-Grasse J. 2008. Surveillance of transmitted HIV drug resistance with the World Health Organization threshold survey method in Lilongwe, Malawi. Antivir Ther 13: 83-87.
40. Kantor R, Katzenstein DA, Efron B, Carvalho AP, Wynhoven B, Cane P, Clarke J, Sirivichayakul S, Soares MA, Snoeck J, et al. 2005. Impact of HIV-1 subtype and antiretroviral therapy on protease and reverse transcriptase genotype: Results of a global collaboration. PLoS Med 2: e112. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pmed. 0020112.
41. Keele BF, Van Heuverswyn F, Li Y, Bailes E, Takehisa J, Santiago ML, Bibollet-Ruche F, Chen Y, Wain LV, Liegeois F, et al. 2006. Chimpanzee reservoirs of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1. Science 313: 523-526.
42. Kent SJ, Cooper DA, ChhiVun M, Shao Y, Zhang L, Ganguly N, Bela B, Tamashiro H, Ditangco R, Rerks-Ngarm S, et al. 2010. AIDS vaccine for Asia network (AVAN): Expanding the regional role in developing HIV vaccines. PLoS Med 7: e1000331. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pmed. 1000331.
43. Kiwanuka N, Laeyendecker O, Robb M, Kigozi G, Arroyo M, McCutchan F, EllerLA, Eller M, Makumbi F, Birx D, et al. 2008. Effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) subtype on disease progression in persons from Rakai, Uganda, with incident HIV-1 infection. J Infect Dis 197: 707-713.
44. Korber B, Muldoon M, Theiler J, Gao F, Gupta R, Lapedes A, Hahn BH, WolinskyS, Bhattacharya T. 2000. Timing the ancestor of the HIV-1 pandemic strains. Science 288: 1789-1796.
45. Korber BT, Letvin NL, Haynes BF. 2009. T-cell vaccine strategies for human immunodeficiency virus, the virus with a thousand faces. J Virol 83: 8300-8314.
46. Kouanfack C, Montavon C, Laurent C, Aghokeng A, Kenfack A, Bourgeois A, Koulla-Shiro S, Mpoudi-Ngole E, Peeters M, Delaporte E. 2009. Low levels of antiretroviral-resistant HIV infection in a routine clinic in Cameroon that uses the World Health Organization (WHO) public health approach to monitor antiretroviral treatment and adequacy with the WHO recommendation for second-line treatment. Clin Infect Dis 48: 1318-1322.
47. Koup RA, Douek DC. 2011. Vaccine design for CTL responses. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med doi: 10. 1101/cshperspect. a007252.
48. Kwong PD, Mascola JR, Nabel GJ. 2011. Rational design of vaccines to elicit broadly neutralizing antibodies to HIV-1. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med doi: 10. 1101/cshperspect. a007278.
49. Li Y, Shao Y, Luo X, Su L, Zhang L, Chen J, Fang Y, Yaun J, Zhang Y, Chen H, et al. 1997. Subtype and sequence analysis of the C2-V3 region of gp120 genes among HIV-1 strains in Hubei province. Chin J Epidemiol 18: 217-219.
50. Li Y, Uenishi R, Hase S, Liao H, Li XJ, Tsuchiura T, Tee KK, Pybus OG, Takebe Y. 2010. Explosive HIV-1 subtype B′ epidemics in Asia driven by geographic and risk group founder events. Virology 402: 223-227.
51. Liao L, Xing H, Li X, Ruan Y, Zhang Y, Qin G, Shao Y. 2007. Genotypic analysis of the protease and reverse transcriptase of HIV type 1 isolates from recently infected injecting drug users in western China. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 23: 1062-1065.
52. Liao L, Xing H, Shang H, Li J, Zhong P, Kang L, Cheng H, Si X, Jiang S, Li X, et al. 2010. The prevalence of transmitted antiretroviral drug resistance in treatment-naive HIV-infected individuals in China. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 53: S10-S14.
53. Los Alamos HIV Sequence Database. 2010. Overview of the subtypes of primate immunodeficiency viruses. http: //www. hiv. lanl. gov/content/sequence/HelpDocs/subtypes. html.
54. Luo CC, Tian C, Hu DJ, Kai M, Dondero T, Zheng X. 1995. HIV-1 subtype C in China. Lancet 345: 1051-1052.
55. Ma Y, Li Z, Zhao S. 1990. HIV infected people were first identified in intravenous drug users in China. Chin J Epidemiol 11: 184-185.
56. Mathers BM, Degenhardt L, Phillips B, Wiessing L, Hickman M, Strathdee SA, Wodak A, Panda S, Tyndall M, Toufik A, et al. 2008. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: A systematic review. Lancet 372: 1733-1745.
57. Mi G, Wu Z. 2010. A review of studies on sero-sorting among HIV positive men who have sex with men. Chin J AIDS STD 16: 201-203.
58. Ott MQ, Bärnighausen T, Tanser F, Lurie MN, Newell ML. 2011. Age-gaps in sexual partnerships: Seeing beyond "sugar daddies". AIDS 25: 861-863.
59. Overbaugh J, Morris L. 2011. The antibody response against HIV-1. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med doi: 10. 1011/cshperspect. a007039.
60. PAHO, WHO, UNAIDS. 2001. Monitoring the AIDS Epidemic (MAP). HIV and AIDS in the Americas: An epidemic with many faces. http: //www. who. int/hiv/strategic/pubrio00/en/index. html.
61. Pereyra F, Jia X, McLaren PJ, Telenti A, de Bakker PI, Walker BD et al. 2010. The major genetic determinants of HIV-1 control affect HLA class I peptide presentation. International HIV controllers study. Science 330: 1551-1557.
62. Phanuphak P, Locharernkul C, Panmuong W, Wilde H. 1985. A report of three cases of AIDS in Thailand. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol 3: 195-199.
63. Piot P, Quinn TC, Taelman H, Feinsod FM, Minlangu KB, Wobin O, Mbendi N, Mazebo P, Ndangi K, Stevens W, et al. 1984. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in a heterosexual population in Zaire. Lancet 2: 65-69.
64. Piyasirisilp S, McCutchan FE, Carr JK, Sanders-Buell E, Liu W, Chen J, Wagner R, Wolf H, Shao Y, Lai S, et al. 2000. A recent outbreak of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in southern China was initiated by two highly homogeneous, geographically separated strains, circulating recombinant form AE and a novel BC recombinant. J Virol 74: 11286-11295.
65. Powers KA, Ghani AC, Miller WC, Hoffman IF, Pettifor AE, Kamanga G, Martinson FE, Cohen MS. 2011. The role of acute and early HIV infection in the spread of HIV and implications for transmission prevention strategies in Lilongwe, Malawi: A modelling study. Lancet 378: 256-268.
66. Powers KA, Poole C, Pettifor AE, Cohen MS. 2008. Rethinking the heterosexual infectivity of HIV-1: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 8: 553-563.
67. Ruan Y, Li D, Li X, Qian HZ, Shi W, Zhang X, Yang Z, Zhang X, Wang C, Liu Y, et al. 2007. Relationship between syphilis and HIV infections among men who have sex with men in Beijing, China. Sex Transm Dis 34: 592-597.
68. Saathoff E, Pritsch M, Geldmacher C, Hoffmann O, Koehler RN, Maboko L, Maganga L, Geis S, McCutchan FE, Kijak GH, et al. 2010. Viral and host factors associated with the HIV-1 viral load setpoint in adults from Mbeya Region, Tanzania. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 54: 324-330.
69. + T lymphocyte responses that confer enhanced immune coverage of diverse HIV strains in monkeys. Nat Med 16: 324-328.
70. Seaman MS, Janes H, Hawkins N, Grandpre LE, Devoy C, Giri A, Coffey RT, Harris L, Wood B, Daniels MG, et al. 2010. Tiered categorization of a diverse panel of HIV-1 Env pseudoviruses for assessment of neutralizing antibodies. J Virol 84: 1439-1452.
71. Serwadda D, Mugerwa RD, Sewankambo NK, Lwegaba A, Carswell JW, Kirya GB, Bayley AC, Downing RG, Tedder RS, Clayden SA, et al. 1985. Slim disease: A new disease in Uganda and its association with HTLV-III infection. Lancet 2: 849-852.
72. Shafer RW, Rhee SY, Bennett DE. 2008. Consensus drug resistance mutations for epidemiological surveillance: Basic principles and potential controversies. Antivir Ther 13: 59-68.
73. Shao Y, Zhao Q, Wang B, Chen Zh, Su L, Zeng Y, Wolf H. 1994. Sequence analysis of HIV env genes among HIV infected drug injecting users in Dehong epidemic area of Yunnan Province, China. Chin J Virol 10: 291-299 (in Chinese).
74. Shao Y, Zhao F, Yang W, XC Gong. 1999. The identification of recombinant HIV-1 strains in IDUs in southwest and northwest China. Chin J Exp Clin Virol 13: 109-112 (in Chinese).
75. Simoes EA, Babu PG, John TJ, Nirmala S, Solomon S, Lakshminarayana CS, Quinn TC. 1987. Evidence for HTLV-III infection in prostitutes in Tamil Nadu. (India). Indian J Med Res 85: 335-338.
76. Steffenson AE, Pettifor AE, Seage GR III., Rees HV, Cleary PD. 2011. Concurrent sexual partnerships and human immunodeficiency virus risk among South African youth. Sex Transm Dis 38: 459-466.
77. Su L, Graf M, Zhang Y, von Briesen H, Xing H, Kostler J, Melzl H, Wolf H, ShaoYM, Wagner R. 2000. Characterization of a virtually full-length human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genome of a prevalent intersubtype (C/B) recombinant strain in China. J Virol 74: 11367-11376.
78. Tang WM, Ding JP, Yan HJ, Xuan XP, Yang HT, Zhao JK. 2008. Sexual behaviors and HIV/syphilis infection among men who have sex with men: A meta analysis of data collected between 2001 and 2006 in the Chinese mainland. Chin J AIDS STD 14: 471-488.
79. Taylor BS, Sobieszczyk ME, McCutchan FE, Hammer SM. 2008. The challenge of HIV-1 subtype diversity. N Engl J Med 358: 1590-1602.
80. Tebit DM, Arts EJ. 2010. Tracking a century of global expansion and evolution of HIV to drive understanding and to combat disease. Lancet Infect Dis 1: 45-56.
81. Tee KK, Pybus OG, Li XJ, Han X, Shang H, Kamarulzaman A, Takebe Y. 2008. Temporal and spatial dynamics of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 circulating recombinant forms 08_BC and 07_BC in Asia. J Virol 82: 9206-9215.
82. Teng T, Shao Y. 2011. Scientific approaches to AIDS prevention and control in China. Adv Dent Res 23: 10-12.
83. Tully DC, Wood C. 2010. Chronology and evolution of the HIV-1 subtype C epidemic in Ethiopia. AIDS 24: 1577-1582.
84. Xing H, Pan P, Su L, Fan X, Feng Y, Qiang L, Shao Y. 2002. Molecular epidemiological study of a HIV-1 strain of subtype E in China between 1996 and 1998. Chin J STD/AIDS Prev Cont 8: 200-203.
85. Xu F, Kilmarx PH, Supawitkul S, Yanpaisarn S, Limpakarnjanarat K, ManopaiboonC, Korattana S, Mastro TD, StLouis ME. 2000. HIV-1 seroprevalence, risk factors, and preventive behaviors among women in northern Thailand. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 25: 353-359.
86. UNAIDS. 2008. UNAIDS report on the global HIV epidemic: 2008. http: //www. unaids. org/GlobalReport/.
87. UNAIDS. 2010. UNAIDS report on the global HIV epidemic: 2010. http: //www. unaids. org/GlobalReport/.
88. UNODC. 2010. The global heroin market. World Drug Report 2010, pp. 37-63.
89. Van de Perre P, Rouvroy D, Lepage P, Bogaerts J, Kestelyn P, Kayihigi J, HekkerAC, Butzler JP, Clumeck NA. 1984. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Rwanda. Lancet 2: 62-65.
90. van Griensven F, Thanprasertsuk S, Jommaroeng R, Mansergh G, Naorat S, Jenkins RA, Ungchusak K, Phanuphak P, Tappero JW, Bangkok MSM Study Group. 2005. Evidence of a previously undocumented epidemic of HIV infection among men who have sex with men in Bangkok, Thailand. AIDS 19: 521-526.
91. van Griensven F, Varangrat A, Wimonsate W, Tanpradech S, Kladsawad K, Chemnasiri T, Suksripanich O, Phanuphak P, Mock P, Kanggarnrua K, et al. 2010. Trends in HIV prevalence, estimated HIV incidence and risk behavior among men who have sex with men in Bangkok, Thailand, 2003-2007. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 53: 234-249.
92. Vermund ST, Leigh-Brown A. 2011. The HIV epidemic: High-income countries. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med doi: 10. 1101/cshperspect. a007195.
93. Vidal N, Peeters M, Mulanga-Kabeya C, Nzilambi N, Robertson D, Ilunga W, Sema H, Tshimanga K, Bongo B, Delaporte E. 2000. Unprecedented degree of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) group M genetic diversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo suggests that the HIV-1 pandemic originated in Central Africa. J Virol 74: 10498-10507.
94. Wheeler WH, Ziebell RA, Zabina H, Pieniazek D, Prejean J, et al. 2010. Prevalence of transmitted drug resistance associated mutations and HIV-1 subtypes in new HIV-1 diagnoses, U. S.-2006. AIDS 24: 1203-1212.
95. Xin R, He X, Xing H, Sun F, Ni M, Zhang Y, Meng Z, Feng Y, Liu S, Wei J, et al. 2009. Genetic and temporal dynamics of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 CRF07_BC in Xinjiang, China. J Gen Virol 90: 1757-1761.
96. WHO. 1998. Fifty years of WHO in the Western Pacific Region, Chapter 26. Sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, pp. 245-259. http: //www. wpro. who. int/NR/rdonlyres/3E44D634-C0F9-480C-B6C2-1C418AE8F3A0/0/chapter26. pdf.
97. Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, Haselkorn T, Kunstman K, Bunce M, Muyembe JJ, Kabongo JM, Kalengayi RM, Van Marck E, et al. 2008. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. J Nature 455: 661-664.
98. Yu XF, Chen J, Shao Y, Beyrer C, Lai S. 1998. Two subtypes of HIV-1 among injection-drug users in southern China. Lancet 351: 1250.
99. Zeng Y, Fan J, Zhang Q, Wang P, Tang D, Zhon S, Zheng X, Liu D. 1986. Detection of antibody to LAV/HTLV-III in sera from hemophiliacs in China. AIDS Res 2: S147-S149.
100. Zhang Y, Lu L, Ba L, Liu L, Yang L, Jia M, Wang H, Fang Q, Shi Y, Yan W, et al. 2006. Dominance of HIV-1 subtype CRF01_AE in sexually acquired cases leads to a new epidemic in Yunnan province of China. PLoS Med 3: e443. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pmed. 0030443.
101. Zhang X, Li Sh, Li X, Li X, Xu J, Li D, Ruan Y, Xing H, Zhang X, Shao Y. 2007. Characterization of HIV-1 subtypes and viral antiretroviral drug resistance in men who have sex with men in Beijing, China. AIDS 21: S59-S66.
102. Zhao F, Shao Y, Duan Y, Chen X, Zhao Q, Su L, Guan Y, Zeng Y, Wolf H. 1999. Sequence analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 tat gene among the long term HIV infected non-progressor in Yunnan province. Chin J Exp Clin Virol 13: 37-40.