Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia

Consultative Hemostasis and Thrombosis

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 421-445

  Warkentin, Theodore E ^a,b,c  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b HAMILTON REGIONAL LABORATORY MEDICINE PROGRAM   (Canada)

^c HAMILTON GENERAL HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84882913986     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-141602401-9.10025-2     Document Type: Chapter

References (200)

1. TE Warkentin (2007) History of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 1-19.
2. TE Warkentin, BH Chong and A Greinacher (1998) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Towards consensus. Thromb Haemost 79 1-7.
3. TE Warkentin (2003) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Pathogenesis and management. Br J Haematol 121 535-555.
4. TE Warkentin and A Greinacher (2007) Laboratory testing for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 227-260.
5. TE Warkentin (2002) Platelet count monitoring and laboratory testing for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Recommendations of the College of American Pathologists. Arch Pathol Lab Med 126 1415-1423.
6. J Amiral, F Bridey, M Dreyfus, et al. (1992) Platelet factor 4 complexed to heparin is the target for antibodies generated in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Letter]. Thromb Haemost 68 95-96.
7. TE Warkentin, MN Levine, J Hirsh, et al. (1995) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in patients treated with low‐molecular‐weight heparin or unfractionated heparin. N Engl J Med 332 1330-1335.
8. TE Warkentin, RS Roberts, J Hirsh and JG Kelton (2003) An improved definition of immune heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in postoperative orthopedic patients. Arch Intern Med 163 2518-2524.
9. S Nand, W Wong, B Yuen, et al. (1997) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia with thrombosis: Incidence, analysis of risk factors, and clinical outcomes in 108 consecutive patients treated at a single institution. Am J Hematol 56 12-16.
10. TE Warkentin, LJ Elavathil, CPM Hayward, et al. (1997) The pathogenesis of venous limb gangrene associated with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 127 804-812.
11. TE Warkentin (2007) Pseudo–heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 261-282.
12. JG Kelton, D Sheridan, A Santos, et al. (1988) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Laboratory studies. Blood 72 925-930.
13. BH Chong, I Fawaz, CN Chesterman and MC Berndt (1989) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Mechanism of interaction of the heparin‐dependent antibody with platelets. Br J Haematol 73 235-240.
14. A Greinacher, B Pötzsch, J Amiral, et al. (1994) Heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia: Isolation of the antibody and characterization of a multimolecular PF4‐heparin complex as the major antigen. Thromb Haemost 71 247-251.
15. GP Visentin, SE Ford, JP Scott and RH Aster (1994) Antibodies from patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia/thrombosis are specific for platelet factor 4 complexed with heparin or bound to endothelial cells. J Clin Invest 93 81-88.
16. PM Newman and BH Chong (1999) Further characterization of antibody and antigen in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol 107 303-309.
17. L Ziporen, ZQ Li, KS Park, et al. (1998) Defining an antigenic epitope on platelet factor 4 associated with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 92 3250-3259.
18. ZQ Li, W Liu, KS Park, et al. (2002) Defining a second epitope for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia/thrombosis antibodies using KKO, a murine HIT‐like monoclonal antibody. Blood 99 1230-1236.
19. JS Suh, RH Aster and GP Visentin (1998) Antibodies from patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia/thrombosis recognize different epitopes on heparin:platelet factor 4. Blood 91 916-922.
20. L Rauova, L Zhai, MA Kowalska, et al. (2006) Role of platelet surface PF4 antigenic complexes in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia pathogenesis: Diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Blood 107 2346-2353.
21. KE Goad, MKIII Horne and HR Gralnick (1994) Pentosan‐induced thrombocytopenia: Support for an immune complex mechanism. Br J Haematol 88 803-808.
22. GP Visentin, M Moghaddam, SE Beery, et al. (2001) Heparin is not required for detection of antibodies associated with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia/thrombosis. J Lab Clin Med 138 22-31.
23. L Rauova, M Poncz, SE McKenzie, et al. (2005) Ultralarge complexes of PF4 and heparin are central to the pathogenesis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 105 131-138.
24. A Greinacher, S Alban, V Dummel, et al. (1995) Characterization of the structural requirements for a carbohydrate based anticoagulant with a reduced risk of inducing the immunological type of heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 74 886-892.
25. TE Warkentin, RJ Cook, VJ Marder, et al. (2005) Anti‐platelet factor 4/heparin antibodies in orthopedic surgery patients receiving antithrombotic prophylaxis with fondaparinux or enoxaparin. Blood 106 3791-3796.
26. A Greinacher, M Gopinadhan, JU Günther, et al. (2006) Close approximation of two platelet factor 4 tetramers by charge neutralization forms the antigens recognized by HIT antibodies. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26 2386-2393.
27. TE Warkentin (2006) HIT: Lessons learned. Pathophysiol Haemost Thromb 35 50-57.
28. TE Warkentin (2004) An overview of the heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia syndrome. Semin Thromb Hemost 30 273-283.
29. A Greinacher, P Eichler, N Lubenow, et al. (2000) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia with thromboembolic complications: Meta‐analysis of two prospective trials to assess the value of parenteral treatment with lepirudin and its therapeutic aPTT range. Blood 96 846-851.
30. TE Warkentin, CPM Hayward, LK Boshkov, et al. (1994) Sera from patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia generate platelet‐derived microparticles with procoagulant activity: An explanation for the thrombotic complications of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 84 3691-3699.
31. TE Warkentin and JI Sheppard (1999) Generation of platelet‐derived microparticles and procoagulant activity by heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia IgG/serum and other IgG platelet agonists: A comparison with standard platelet agonists. Platelets 10 319-326.
32. M Hughes, CPM Hayward, TE Warkentin, et al. (2000) Morphological analysis of microparticle generation in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 96 188-194.
33. DB Cines, A Tomaski and S Tanenbaum (1987) Immune endothelial‐cell injury in heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 316 581-589.
34. C Pouplard, S Iochmann, B Renard, et al. (2001) Induction of monocyte tissue factor expression by antibodies to heparin‐platelet factor 4 complexes developed in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 97 3300-3302.
35. M Khairy, D Lasne, A Amelot, et al. (2004) Polymorphonuclear leukocyte and monocyte activation induced by plasma from patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in whole blood. Thromb Haemost 92 1411-1419.
36. JM Herbert, P Savi, WP Jeske and JM Walenga (1998) Effect of SR121566A, a potent GP IIb‐IIIa antagonist, on the HIT serum/heparin‐induced platelet mediated activation of human endothelial cells. Thromb Haemost 80 326-331.
37. A Greinacher and TE Warkentin (2007) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. WC Aird (Eds) Endothelial Biomedicine Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
38. A Greinacher and G Mueller‐Eckhardt (1993) Heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia: No association of immune response with HLA. Vox Sang 65 151-153.
39. GA Denomme (2007) Platelet and leukocyte Fcγ receptors in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia New York: Informa Healthcare USA 187-208.
40. Y Gruel, C Pouplard, D Lasne, et al. (2004) The homozygous FcγRIIIa‐158V genotype is a risk factor for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in patients with antibodies to heparin‐platelet factor 4 complexes. Blood 104 2791-2793.
41. TE Warkentin and JG Kelton (2001) Temporal aspects of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 344 1286-1292.
42. DH Lee and TE Warkentin (2007) Frequency of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 67-116.
43. JS Suh, MI Malik, RH Aster and GP Visentin (1997) Characterization of the humoral immune response in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol 54 196-201.
44. TE Warkentin, JI Sheppard, P Horsewood, et al. (2000) Impact of the patient population on the risk for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 96 1703-1708.
45. J Amiral, M Wolf, AM Fischer, et al. (1996) Pathogenicity of IgA and/or IgM antibodies to heparin‐PF4 complexes in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol 92 954-959.
46. TE Warkentin, JI Sheppard, JC Moore, et al. (2005) Laboratory testing for the antibodies that cause heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: How much class do we need? J Lab Clin Med 146 341-346.
47. D Juhl, P Eichler, N Lubenow, et al. (2006) Incidence and clinical significance of anti‐PF4/heparin antibodies of the IgG, IgM, and IgA class in 755 consecutive patient samples referred for diagnostic testing for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Eur J Haematol 76 420-426.
48. BH Chong, RL Pilgrim, MA Cooley and CN Chesterman (1993) Increased expression of platelet IgG Fc receptors in immune heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 81 988-993.
49. AP Hong, DJ Cook, CS Sigouin and TE Warkentin (2003) Central venous catheters and upper‐extremity deep‐vein thrombosis complicating immune heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 101 3049-3051.
50. TE Warkentin (2007) Clinical picture of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 21-66.
51. Y Gruel, C Pouplard, P Nguyen, et al. (2003) Biological and clinical features of low‐molecular‐weight heparin–induced thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol 121 786-792.
52. A Greinacher, P Eichler, T Lietz and TE Warkentin (2005) Replacement of unfractionated heparin by low‐molecular‐weight heparin for postorthopedic surgery antithrombotic prophylaxis lowers the overall risk of symptomatic thrombosis because of a lower frequency of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Letter]. Blood 106 2921-2922.
53. N Martel, J Lee and PS Wells (2005) Risk for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia with unfractionated and low‐molecular‐weight heparin thromboprophylaxis: A meta‐analysis. Blood 106 2710-2715.
54. JL Francis, GP Palmer III, R Moroose and A Drexler (2003) Comparison of bovine and porcine heparin in heparin antibody formation after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 75 17-22.
55. TE Warkentin and JG Kelton (2001) Delayed‐onset heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia and thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 135 502-506.
56. L Rice, WK Attisha, A Drexler and JL Francis (2002) Delayed‐onset heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 136 210-215.
57. TE Warkentin and RA Bernstein (2003) Delayed‐onset heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia and cerebral thrombosis after a single administration of unfractionated heparin [Letter]. N Engl J Med 348 1067-1069.
58. RL Levine, MJ Hursting, A Drexler, et al. (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 44 511-515.
59. A Greinacher, B Farner, H Kroll, et al. (2005) Clinical features of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia including risk factors for thrombosis: A retrospective analysis of 408 patients. Thromb Haemost 94 132-135.
60. C Pouplard, MA May, S Iochmann, et al. (1999) Antibodies to platelet factor 4‐heparin after cardiopulmonary bypass in patients anticoagulated with unfractionated heparin or a low‐molecular‐weight heparin: Clinical implications for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Circulation 99 2530-2536.
61. TE Warkentin and JI Sheppard (2006) No significant improvement in diagnostic specificity of an anti‐PF4/polyanion immunoassay with use of high heparin confirmatory procedure [Letter]. J Thromb Haemost 4 281-282.
62. TE Warkentin, JI Sheppard, CS Sigouin, et al. (2006) Gender imbalance and risk factor interactions in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 108 2937-2941.
63. TE Warkentin and A Greinacher (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Recognition, treatment, and prevention. The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 126(suppl), 311S-337S.
64. N Lubenow, R Kempf, A Eichner, et al. (2002) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Temporal pattern of thrombocytopenia in relation to initial use or reexposure to heparin. Chest 122 37-42.
65. TE Warkentin (1998) Clinical presentation of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Semin Hematol 35(suppl 5), 9-16.
66. TE Warkentin and JG Kelton (1996) A 14‐year study of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Med 101 502-507.
67. D Ernest and MM Fisher (1991) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopaenia complicated by bilateral adrenal haemorrhage. Intensive Care Med 17 238-240.
68. A Meyer‐Lindenberg, E.M. Quenzel E‐M, E Bierhoff, et al. (1997) Fatal cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in heparin‐induced thrombotic thrombocytopenia. Eur Neurol 37 191-192.
69. TE Warkentin, WM Sikov and DP Lillicrap (1999) Multicentric warfarin‐induced skin necrosis complicating heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol 62 44-48.
70. TE Warkentin (1996) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: IgG‐mediated platelet activation, platelet microparticle generation, and altered procoagulant/anticoagulant balance in the pathogenesis of thrombosis and venous limb gangrene complicating heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Transfus Med Rev 10 249-258.
71. MA Smythe, TE Warkentin, JL Stephens, et al. (2002) Venous limb gangrene during overlapping therapy with warfarin and a direct thrombin inhibitor for immune heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol 71 50-52.
72. AF Srinivasan, L Rice, JR Bartholomew, et al. (2004) Warfarin‐induced skin necrosis and venous limb gangrene in the setting of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Arch Intern Med 164 66-70.
73. TE Warkentin (2006) Coumarin‐induced skin necrosis and venous limb gangrene. RW Colman, VJ Marder, AW Clowes, et al., (Eds) Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 1649-1661.
74. TE Warkentin (1998) Limitations of conventional treatment options for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Semin Hematol 35(suppl 5), 17-25.
75. DE Wallis, R Quintos, W Wehrmacher, et al. (1999) Safety of warfarin anticoagulation in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Chest 116 1333-1338.
76. A Greinacher and TE Warkentin (2007) Treatment for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: An overview. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 283-317.
77. TE Warkentin (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Diagnosis and management. Circulation 110 e454-e458.
78. TE Warkentin (2006) Should vitamin K be administered when HIT is diagnosed after administration of coumarin? [Letter]. J Thromb Haemost 4 894-896.
79. TE Warkentin (2001) Venous limb gangrene during warfarin treatment of cancer‐associated deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 135 589-593.
80. L Klein, A Galvez, O Klein and J Chediak (2004) Warfarin‐induced limb gangrene in the setting of lung adenocarcinoma. Am J Hematol 76 176-179.
81. TE Warkentin (1996) Heparin‐induced skin lesions. Br J Haematol 92 494-497.
82. R Wütschert, P Piletta and H Bounameaux (1999) Adverse skin reactions to low molecular weight heparins: Frequency, management and prevention. Drug Saf 20 515-525.
83. TE Warkentin (1997) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia, heparin‐induced skin lesions, and arterial thrombosis [Abstract]. Thromb Haemost 77(suppl), 562.
84. C Pohl, T Klockgether, A Greinacher, et al. (1999) Neurological complications in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Letter]. Lancet 353 1678-1679.
85. TE Warkentin, HW Hirte, DR Anderson, et al. (1994) Transient global amnesia associated with acute heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Med 97 489-491.
86. JE Ansell, WP Clark Jr and CC Compton (1986) Fatal reactions associated with intravenous heparin. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 20 74-75.
87. AF Klenner, N Lubenow, R Raschke and A Greinacher (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in children: 12 new cases and review of the literature. Thromb Haemost 91 719-724.
88. AF Klenner and A Greinacher (2007) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in children. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 503-517.
89. L Risch, JE Fischer, R Herklotz and AR Huber (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in paediatrics: Clinical characteristics, therapy and outcomes. Intensive Care Med 30 1615-1624.
90. AF Klenner, C Fusch, A Rakow, et al. (2003) Benefit and risk of heparin for maintaining peripheral venous catheters in neonates: A placebo‐controlled trial. J Pediatr 143 741-745.
91. A Boning, T Morschheuser, U Blase, et al. (2005) Incidence of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia and therapeutic strategies in pediatric cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 79 62-65.
92. MJ Hursting, J Dubb and CN Vermey‐Gibboney (2006) Argatroban anticoagulation in pediatric patients: A literature analysis. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 28 4-10.
93. TE Warkentin and DJ Cook (2005) Heparin, low molecular weight heparin, and heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in the ICU. Crit Care Clin 21 513-529.
94. MA Crowther, DJ Cook, MO Meade, et al. (2005) Thrombocytopenia in medical‐surgical critically ill patients: Prevalence, incidence, and risk factors. J Crit Care 20 348-353.
95. AK Verma, M Levine, SJ Shalansky, et al. (2003) Frequency of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in critical care patients. Pharmacotherapy 23 745-753.
96. CS Kitchens (2004) Thrombocytopenia due to acute venous thromboembolism and its role in expanding the differential diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Hematol 76 69-73.
97. TE Warkentin and NM Heddle (2003) Laboratory diagnosis of immune heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Curr Hematol Rep 2 148-157.
98. GK Lo, D Juhl, TE Warkentin, et al. (2006) Evaluation of pretest clinical score (4 T's) for the diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in two clinical settings. J Thromb Haemost 4 757-758.
99. A Lillo‐Le Louët, P Boutouyrie, M Alhenc‐Gelas, et al. (2004) Diagnostic score for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia after cardiopulmonary bypass. J Thromb Haemost 2 1882-1888.
100. TE Warkentin (2005) New approaches to the diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Chest 127 35S-45S.
101. TE Warkentin and JA Sheppard (2006) Laboratory testing for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) antibodies. Transfus Med Rev 20 259-272.
102. J Polgár, P Eichler, A Greinacher and KJ Clemetson (1998) Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and ADP receptor play a major role in platelet activation/aggregation induced by sera from heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia patients. Blood 91 549-554.
103. D Sheridan, C Carter and JG Kelton (1986) A diagnostic test for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Blood 67 27-30.
104. TE Warkentin, CPM Hayward, CA Smith, et al. (1992) Determinants of platelet variability when testing for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. J Lab Clin Med 120 371-379.
105. DP Lee, TE Warkentin, GA Denomme, et al. (1996) A diagnostic test for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Detection of platelet microparticles using flow cytometry. Br J Haematol 95 724-731.
106. A Greinacher, I Michels, V Kiefel and C Mueller‐Eckhardt (1991) A rapid and sensitive test for diagnosing heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 66 734-736.
107. A Greinacher, J Amiral, V Dummel, et al. (1994) Laboratory diagnosis of heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia and comparison of platelet aggregation test, heparin‐induced platelet activation test, and platelet factor 4/heparin enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay. Transfusion 34 381-385.
108. P Eichler, U Budde, S Haas, et al. (1999) First workshop for detection of heparin‐induced antibodies: Validation of the heparin‐induced platelet activation (HIPA) test in comparison with a PF4/heparin ELISA. Thromb Haemost 81 625-629.
109. P Nguyèn and T Lecompte (1994) Groupe d'Etude sur l'Hémostase et la Thromboses (GEHT) de la Société Française d'Hématologie: Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: A survey of tests employed and attitudes in haematology laboratories. Nouv Rev Fr Hematol 36 353-357.
110. BH Chong, J Burgess and F Ismail (1993) The clinical usefulness of the platelet aggregation test for the diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 69 344-350.
111. P Horsewood, TE Warkentin, CPM Hayward and JG Kelton (1996) The epitope specificity of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Br J Haematol 95 161-167.
112. PM Newman, RL Swanson and BH Chong (1998) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: IgG binding to PF4‐heparin complexes in the fluid phase and cross‐reactivity with low molecular weight heparin and heparinoid. Thromb Haemost 80 292-297.
113. O Meyer, A Salama, N Pittet and P Schwind (1999) Rapid detection of heparin‐induced platelet antibodies with particle gel immunoassay (ID‐HPF4). Lancet 354 1525-1526.
114. P Eichler, R Raschke, N Lubenow, et al. (2002) The new ID‐heparin/PF4 antibody test for rapid detection of heparin‐induced antibodies in comparison with functional and antigenic assays. Br J Haematol 116 887-891.
115. L Alberio, S Kimmerle, A Baumann, et al. (2003) Rapid determination of anti‐heparin/platelet factor 4 antibody titers in the diagnosis of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Med 114 528-536.
116. J Amiral, F Bridey, M Wolf, et al. (1995) Antibodies to macromolecular platelet factor 4‐heparin complexes in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: A study of 44 cases. Thromb Haemost 73 21-28.
117. TL Bauer, G Arepally, BA Konkle, et al. (1997) Prevalence of heparin‐associated antibodies without thrombosis in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass surgery. Circulation 95 1242-1246.
118. J Amiral, A Marfaing‐Koka, M Wolf, et al. (1996) Presence of auto‐antibodies to interleukin‐8 or neutrophil‐activating peptide‐2 in patients with heparin‐associated‐thrombocytopenia. Blood 88 410-416.
119. G Guyatt, H Schunëmann, D Cook, et al. (2004) Applying the grades of recommendation for antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy. The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 126(suppl), 179S-187S.
120. A Greinacher (2007) Lepirudin for the treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 345-378.
121. TE Warkentin (2004) Bivalent direct thrombin inhibitors: Hirudin and bivalirudin. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 17 105-125.
122. A Greinacher (2004) Lepirudin: A bivalent direct thrombin inhibitor for anticoagulation therapy. Exp Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2 339-357.
123. P Eichler, HJ Friesen, N Lubenow, et al. (2000) Antihirudin antibodies in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia treated with lepirudin: Incidence, effects on aPTT, and clinical relevance. Blood 96 2373-2378.
124. A Greinacher, N Lubenow and P Eichler (2003) Anaphylactic and anaphylactoid reactions associated with lepirudin in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Circulation 108 2062-2065.
125. NO Badger, K Butler and LC Hallman (2004) Excessive anticoagulation and anaphylactic reaction after rechallenge with lepirudin in a patient with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Pharmacotherapy 24 1800-1803.
126. A Greinacher, H Völpel, U Janssens, et al. (1999) for the HIT Investigators Group: Recombinant hirudin (lepirudin) provides safe and effective anticoagulation in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: A prospective study. Circulation 99 73-80.
127. A Greinacher, U Janssens, G Berg, et al. (1999) for the Heparin‐Associated Thrombocytopenia Study (HAT) Investigators: Lepirudin (recombinant hirudin) for parenteral anticoagulation in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Circulation 100 587-593.
128. N Lubenow, P Eichler and T Lietz (2005) for the HIT Investigators Group: Lepirudin in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia—Results of the third prospective study (HAT‐3) and a combined analysis of HAT‐1, HAT‐2, and HAT‐3. J Thromb Haemost 3 2428-2436.
129. M Hacquard, E De Maistre and T Lecompte (2005) Lepirudin: Is the approved dosing schedule too high? [Letter]. J Thromb Haemost 3 2593-2596.
130. N Lubenow, P Eichler and A Greinacher (2002) Results of a large drug monitoring program confirms the safety and efficacy of Refludan (lepirudin) in patients with immune‐mediated heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Abstract]. Blood 100(suppl), 502a.
131. BE Lewis, DE Wallis, SD Berkowitz, et al. (2001) for the ARG‐911 Study Investigators: Argatroban anticoagulant therapy in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Circulation 103 1838-1843.
132. BE Lewis, DE Wallis, F Leya, et al. (2003) Argatroban anticoagulation in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Arch Intern Med 163 1849-1856.
133. BE Lewis, DE Wallis, MJ Hursting, et al. (2006) Effects of argatroban therapy, demographic variables, and platelet count on thrombotic risks in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Chest 129 1407-1416.
134. BE Lewis and MJ Hursting (2007) Argatroban therapy in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 379-408.
135. BE Lewis, WH Matthai Jr, M Cohen, et al. (2002) Argatroban anticoagulation during percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 57 177-184.
136. DR Williamson, I Boulanger, M Tardif, et al. (2004) Argatroban dosing in intensive care patients with acute renal failure and liver dysfunction. Pharmacotherapy 24 409-414.
137. TH Kiser, R Jung, R MacLaren and DN Fish (2005) Evaluation of diagnostic tests and argatroban or lepirudin therapy in patients with suspected heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Pharmacotherapy 25 1736-1745.
138. PA Arpino and RK Hallisey (2004) Effect of renal function on the pharmacodynamics of argatroban. Ann Pharmacother 38 25-29.
139. MA Smythe, JL Stephens, JM Koerber and JC Mattson (2005) A comparison of lepirudin and argatroban outcomes. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 11 371-374.
140. JM Walenga, S Ahmad, D Hoppensteadt, et al. (2002) Argatroban therapy does not generate antibodies that alter its anticoagulant activity in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Res 105 401-405.
141. TE Warkentin (2003) Management of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: A critical comparison of lepirudin and argatroban. Thromb Res 110 73-82.
142. SM Begelman, MJ Hursting, RV Aghababian and D McCollum (2005) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia from venous thromboembolism treatment. J Intern Med 258 563-572.
143. JR Bartholomew (2007) Bivalirudin for the treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 409-439.
144. JM Maraganore, P Bourdon, J Jablonski, et al. (1990) Design and characterization of hirulogs: A novel class of bivalent peptide inhibitors of thrombin. Biochemistry 29 7095-7101.
145. TE Warkentin and A Koster (2005) Bivalirudin: A review. Expert Opin Pharmacother 6 1349-1371.
146. JL Francis, A Drexler, G Gwyn and R Moroose (2004) Successful use of bivalirudin in the treatment of patients suspected, or at risk of, heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Abstract]. Blood 104(suppl), 105b.
147. JR Chamberlin, B Lewis, F Leya, et al. (1995) Successful treatment of heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia and thrombosis using Hirulog. Can J Cardiol 11 511-514.
148. KW Mahaffey, BE Lewis, NM Wildermann, et al. (2003) The Anticoagulant Therapy with Bivalirudin to Assist in the performance of percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with heparin‐induced Thrombocytopenia (ATBAT) study: Main results. J Invasive Cardiol 15 611-616.
149. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher, S Craven, et al. (2005) Differences in the clinically effective molar concentrations of four direct thrombin inhibitors explain their variable prothrombin time prolongation. Thromb Haemost 94 958-964.
150. MJ Hursting, BE Lewis and DE Macfarlane (2005) Transitioning from argatroban to warfarin therapy in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 11 279-287.
151. SB Sheth, RA DiCicco, MJ Hursting, et al. (2001) Interpreting the international normalized ratio (INR) in individuals receiving argatroban and warfarin. Thromb Haemost 85 435-440.
152. JR Bartholomew and MJ Hursting (2005) Transitioning from argatroban to warfarin in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: An analysis of outcomes in patients with elevated international normalized ratio (INR). J Thromb Thrombolysis 19 183-188.
153. DG Meuleman, PMJ Hobbelen, G Van Dedem and HCT Moelker (1982) A novel anti‐thrombotic heparinoid (Org 10172) devoid of bleeding inducing capacity: A survey of its pharmacological properties in experimental animal models. Thromb Res 27 353-363.
154. BH Chong and HN Magnani (2007) Danaparoid for the treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 319-343.
155. BH Chong, AS Gallus, JF Cade, et al. (2001) Prospective randomised open‐label comparison of danaparoid with dextran 70 in the treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia with thrombosis: A clinical outcome study. Thromb Haemost 86 1170-1175.
156. N Lubenow, TE Warkentin, A Greinacher, et al. (2006) Results of a systematic evaluation of treatment outcomes for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in patients receiving danaparoid, ancrod, and/or coumarin explain the rapid shift in clinical practise during the 1990s. Thromb Res 117 507-515.
157. HN Magnani (1993) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): An overview of 230 patients treated with orgaran (Org 10172). Thromb Haemost 70 554-561.
158. HN Magnani (1997) Orgaran (danaparoid sodium) use in the syndrome of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Platelets 8 74-81.
159. B Tardy‐Poncet, B Tardy, J Reynaud, et al. (1999) Efficacy and safety of danaparoid sodium (ORG 10172) in critically ill patients with heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia. Chest 115 1616-1620.
160. B Farner, P Eichler, H Kroll and A Greinacher (2001) A comparison of danaparoid and lepirudin in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 85 950-957.
161. TE Warkentin (2001) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Yet another treatment paradox? Thromb Haemost 85 947-949.
162. AG Turpie, KA Bauer, BI Eriksson and MR Lassen (2002) Fondaparinux vs enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in major orthopedic surgery: A meta‐analysis of 4 randomized double‐blind studies. Arch Intern Med 162 1833-1840.
163. HR Buller, BL Davidson, H Decousus, et al. (2004) Fondaparinux or enoxaparin for the initial treatment of symptomatic deep venous thrombosis: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 140 867-873.
164. HR Buller, BL Davidson, H Decousus, et al. (2003) Subcutaneous fondaparinux versus intravenous unfractionated heparin in the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 349 1695-1702.
165. C Pouplard, C Couvret, S Regina and Y Gruel (2005) Development of antibodies specific to polyanion‐modified platelet factor 4 during treatment with fondaparinux. J Thromb Haemost 3 2813-2815.
166. P Savi, BH Chong, A Greinacher, et al. (2005) Effect of fondaparinux on platelet activation in the presence of heparin‐dependent antibodies: A blinded comparative multicenter study with unfractionated heparin. Blood 105 139-144.
167. TE Warkentin, BT Maurer and RH Aster (2007) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia associated with fondaparinux [Letter]. N Engl J Med 356 2653-2654.
168. MJ Kovacs (2005) Successful treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) with fondaparinux. Thromb Haemost 93 999-1000.
169. KH Kuo and MJ Kovacs (2005) Fondaparinux: A potential new therapy for HIT. Hematology 10 271-275.
170. J Harenberg, I Jorg and T Fenyvesi (2004) Treatment of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia with fondaparinux. Haematologica 89 1017-1018.
171. TE Warkentin (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia and vascular surgery. Acta Chir Belg 104 257-265.
172. JI Weitz, B Leslie and M Hudoba (1998) Thrombin binds to soluble fibrin degradation products where it is protected from inhibition by heparin‐antithrombin but susceptible to inactivation by antithrombin‐independent inhibitors. Circulation 97 544-552.
173. A Greinacher, U Liebenhoff, V Kiefel, et al. (1994) Heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia: The effects of various intravenous IgG preparations on antibody mediated platelet activation—A possible new indication for high dose i.v. IgG. Thromb Haemost 71 641-645.
174. JN Frame, KP Mulvey, JC Phares and MJ Anderson (1989) Correction of severe heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia with intravenous immunoglobulin. Ann Intern Med 111 946-947.
175. K Selleng, S Selleng, R Raschke, et al. (2005) Immune heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia can occur in patients receiving clopidogrel and aspirin. Am J Hematol 78 188-192.
176. A Greinacher, I Michels and C Mueller‐Eckhardt (1992) Heparin‐associated thrombocytopenia: Antibody is not heparin‐specific. Thromb Haemost 67 545-549.
177. O Ranze, A Eichner, N Lubenow, et al. (2000) The use of low‐molecular‐weight heparins in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia (HIT): A cohort study [Abstract]. Ann Hematol 79(suppl 1), P198.
178. M Contreras (1998) The appropriate use of platelets: An update from the Edinburgh Consensus Conference. Br J Haematol 101(suppl 1), 10-12.
179. RB Babcock, CW Dumper and WB Scharfman (1976) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med 295 237-241.
180. PL Cimo, JL Moake, RS Weinger, et al. (1979) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Association with a platelet aggregating factor and arterial thromboses. Am J Hematol 6 125-133.
181. L Rice (2004) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: Myths and misconceptions (that will cause trouble for you and your patient). Arch Intern Med 164 1961-1964.
182. H Ishibashi, O Takashi, M Hosaka, et al. (2005) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia complicated with massive thrombosis of the inferior vena cava after filter placement. Int Angiol 24 387-390.
183. TE Warkentin (2007) The diagnosis and management of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. JJ Bergan (Eds) The Vein Book Amsterdam: Elsevier 395-403.
184. DMS Boon, JJ Michiels, J Stibbe, et al. (1994) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia and antithrombotic therapy [Letter]. Lancet 344 1296.
185. DE Wallis, DL Workman, BE Lewis, et al. (1999) Failure of early heparin cessation as treatment for heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Am J Med 106 629-635.
186. JI Zwicker, L Uhl, WY Huang, et al. (2004) Thrombosis and ELISA optical density values in hospitalized patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. J Thromb Haemost 2 2133-2137.
187. B Tardy, B Tardy‐Poncet, P Fournel, et al. (1999) Lower limb veins should be systematically explored in patients with isolated heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Letter]. Thromb Haemost 82 1199-1200.
188. N Lubenow, P Eichler, T Lietz, et al. (2004) Lepirudin for prophylaxis of thrombosis in patients with acute isolated heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia: An analysis of 3 prospective studies. Blood 104 3072-3077.
189. B Pötzsch, WP Klovekorn and K Madlener (2000) Use of heparin during cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with a history of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia [Letter]. N Engl J Med 343 515.
190. B Pötzsch and K Madlener (2007) Management of intraoperative anticoagulation in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia undergoing cardiovascular surgery. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 487-502.
191. TE Warkentin and A Greinacher (2003) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia and cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg 76 2121-2131.
192. HN Magnani, RJR Beijering, JW ten Cate and BH Chong (1997) Orgaran anticoagulation for cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. R Pifarré (Eds) New Anticoagulants for the Cardiovascular Patient Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus 487-500.
193. CM Dyke, NG Smedira, A Koster, et al. (2006) A comparison of bivalirudin to heparin with protamine reversal in patients undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass: The EVOLUTION‐ON study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 131 533-539.
194. SI O'Shea, TL Ortel and EC Kovalik (2003) Alternative methods of anticoagulation for dialysis‐dependent patients with heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. Semin Dial 16 61-67.
195. KG Fischer (2007) Hemodialysis in heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia. TE Warkentin, A Greinacher (Eds) Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia 4th ed. New York: Informa Healthcare USA 463-485.
196. PT Murray, BV Reddy, EJ Grossman, et al. (2004) A prospective comparison of three argatroban treatment regimens during hemodialysis in end‐stage renal disease. Kidney Int 66 2446-2453.
197. C Pohl, A Kredteck, B Bastians, et al. (2005) Heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in neurologic patients treated with low‐molecular‐weight heparin. Neurology 64 1285-1287.
198. B Girolami, P Prandoni, PM Stefani, et al. (2003) The incidence of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in hospitalized medical patients treated with subcutaneous unfractionated heparin: A prospective cohort study. Blood 101 2955-2959.
199. P Prandoni, S Siragusa, B Girolami and F Fabris (2005) and the Belzoni Investigators Group: The incidence of heparin‐induced thrombocytopenia in medical patients treated with low‐molecular‐weight heparin: A prospective cohort study. Blood 106 3049-3054.
200. TE Warkentin and A Greinacher (Eds) (2007) 4th ed. Heparin‐Induced Thrombocytopenia New York: Informa Healthcare USA