Concrete behaviour and reappraisal deficits after a left frontal stroke: A case study

Neuropsychological Rehabilitation

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 467-500

  Salas, Christian E ^a,c   Gross, James J ^b   Rafal, Robert D ^a   Viñas Guasch, Nestor ^a   Turnbull, Oliver H ^a  

^a BANGOR UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Unidad de Psicoterapia Dinámica Instituto Psiquiátrico J H Barak   (Chile)

Author keywords

Abstraction; Brain injury; Concrete behaviour; Emotion regulation; Reappraisal; Rehabilitation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84881373845     PISSN: 09602011     EISSN: 14640694     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09602011.2013.784709     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. Abreu, B., Zgaljardic, D. J., Borod, J. C., Seale, G., Temple, R., Ostir, G., and, Ottenbacher, K. 2009. " Emotion regulation, processing, and recovery after acquired brain injury. Contributors to life balance ". In Life balance: Multidisciplinary theories and research, Edited by: Matuska, K. and Christiansen, C. 223-240. Bethesda, MD: SLACK Incorporated and AOTA Press.
2. Alexander, M. P., Stuss, D. T., Picton, T., Shallice, T., and, Gillingham, S. 2007. Regional frontal injuries cause distinct impairments in cognitive control. Neurology, 68: 1515-1523. (doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000261482. 99569.fb) (Pubitemid 46685923)
3. Anderson, S., and, Tranel, D. 2002. Neuropsychological consequences of dysfunction in human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Science, 7: 145-156.
4. Baldo, J. V., Shimamura, A. P., Delis, D. C., Kramer, J., and, Kaplan, E. 2001. Verbal and design fluency in patients with frontal lobe lesions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,: 586-596. (doi:10.1017/ S1355617701755063) (Pubitemid 32700953)
5. Barkley, R. 1997. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121: 65-94. (doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65) (Pubitemid 127705285)
6. Barkley, R. 2001. The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11: 1-29. (doi:10.1023/A:1009085417776) (Pubitemid 33635919)
7. Barrash, J., Anderson, S. W., Hathaway-Nepple, J., Jones, R. D., and, Tranel, D. 1997. The Iowa Scales of Personality Change, Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa College of Medicine, Department of Neurology.
8. Barrash, J., Asp, E., Markon, K., Manzel, K., Anderson, S. W., and, Tranel, D. 2011. Dimensions of personality disturbance after focal brain damage: Investigation with the Iowa Scales of Personality Change. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33: 1-20. (doi:10.1080/13803395.2011.561300)
9. Beer, J., and, Lombardo, M. 2007. " Insights into emotion regulation from neuropsychology ". In Handbook of emotion regulation, Edited by: Gross, J. 69-86. New York: The Guilford Press.
10. Bowen, C., Yeates, G., and, Palmer, S. 2010. A relational approach to rehabilitation: Thinking about relationships after brain injury, London: Karnac Books.
11. Bowles, B., Crupi, C., Mirsattari, S. M., Pigott, S. E., Parrent, A. G., Pruessner, J. C., Yonelinas, A. P. 2007. Impaired familiarity with preserved recollection after anterior temporal-lobe resection that spares the hippocampus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104: 16382-16387. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0705273104) (Pubitemid 350099413)
12. Burgess, P. W., Alderman, N., Forbes, C., Costello, A., Coates, L. M.-A., Dawson, D. R., Anderson, N. D. 2006. The case for the development and use of "ecologically valid" measures of executive function in experimental and clinical neuropsychology. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 12: 194-209. doi:10.1017/S1355617706060310 (doi:10.1017/ S1355617706060310)
13. Carthy, T., Horesh, N., Apter, A., Edge, M. D., and, Gross, J. J. 2010. Emotional reactivity and cognitive regulation in anxious children. Behaviour Research And Therapy, 48: 384-393. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013 (doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.12.013)
14. Cattran, C. J., Oddy, M., Wood, R. L., and, Moir, J. F. 2011. Post-injury personality in the prediction of outcome following severe acquired brain injury. Brain Injury, 25: 1035-1046. (doi:10.3109/02699052.2011.607787)
15. Cicerone, K., and, Giacino, J. 1992. Remediation of executive function deficits after traumatic brain injury. NeuroRehabilitation, 2: 12-22.
16. Costafreda, S. G., Fu, C. H., Lee, L., Everitt, B., Brammer, M. J., and, David, A. S. 2006. A systematic review and quantitative appraisal of fMRI studies of verbal fluency: Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus. Human Brain Mapping, 27: 799-810. (doi:10.1002/hbm.20221) (Pubitemid 44522568)
17. Crawford, J. R., and, Howell, D. C. 1998. Comparing an individual's test score against norms derived from small samples. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 12: 482-486. (doi:10.1076/clin.12.4.482.7241) (Pubitemid 29267969)
18. Cunha, P. J., Nicastri, S., de Andrade, A. G., and, Bolla, K. I. 2010. The frontal assessment battery (FAB) reveals neurocognitive dysfunction in substance-dependent individuals in distinct executive domains: Abstract reasoning, motor programming, and cognitive flexibility. Addictive Behaviors, 35: 875-881. (doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.05.005)
19. Dawkins, N., Cloherty, M. E., Gracey, F., and, Evans, J. J. 2006. The factor structure of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale in acquired brain injury. Brain injury, 20: 1235-1239. (doi:10.1080/02699050601076414) (Pubitemid 44842941)
20. Delis, D., Kaplan, E., and, Kramer, J. 2001. Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS), San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
21. Demanet, J., Liefooghe, B., and, Verbruggen, F. 2011. Valence, arousal, and cognitive control: A voluntary task-switching study. Cognition, 2: 1-9. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00336
22. Derrfuss, J., Brass, M., Neumann, J., and, von Cramon, D. Y. 2005. Involvement of the inferior frontal junction in cognitive control: Meta-analyses of switching and Stroop studies. Human Brain Mapping, 25: 22-34. (doi:10.1002/hbm.20127) (Pubitemid 40656190)
23. De Renzi, E., and, Faglioni, P. 1978. Normative data and screening power of a shortened version of the Token Test. Cortex, 14: 41-49. (doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(78)80006-9) (Pubitemid 8327451)
24. Drewe, E. 1975. Go-no go learning after frontal lobe lesions in humans. Cortex, 11: 8-16. (doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(75)80015-3)
25. Dubois, B., Slachevsky, A., Litvan, I., and, Pillon, B. 2000. The FAB: A frontal assessment battery at bedside. Neurology, 55: 1621-1626. (doi:10.1212/WNL.55.11.1621)
26. Fuster, J. M. 2008. The prefrontal cortex, London: Elsevier.
27. Geva, S., Jones, P. S., Crinion, J. T., Price, C. J., Baron, J.-C., and, Warburton, E. 2011. The neural correlates of inner speech defined by voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping. Brain, 134: 3071-3082. (doi:10.1093/brain/awr232)
28. Goel, V. 2010. Neural basis of thinking: Laboratory problems versus real-world problems. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science,. doi:10.1002/wcs.71
29. Goldin, P., McRae, K., Ramel, W., and, Gross, J. 2008. The neural basis of emotion regulation: Reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion. Biological Psychiatry, 63: 577-586. (doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.031) (Pubitemid 351273191)
30. Goldstein, K. 1936a. The modifications of behavior consequent to cerebral lesions. Psychiatric Quarterly, 10: 586-610. (doi:10.1007/BF01563142)
31. Goldstein, K. 1936b. The significance of the frontal lobes for mental performances. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 17: 27-40. (doi:10.1136/jnnp.s1-17.65.27)
32. Goldstein, K. 1942. Aftereffects of brain injury in war. Their evaluation and treatment, London: William Heinemann.
33. Goldstein, K., and, Scheerer, K. R. 1941. Abstract and concrete behavior. An experimental study with special tests. Psychology Monographs, 53: 1-10.
34. Gomez Beldarrain, M., Garcia-Monco, J. C., Astigarraga, E., Gonzalez, A., and, Grafman, J. 2005. Only spontaneous counterfactual thinking is impaired in patients with prefrontal cortex lesions. Cognitive Brain Research, 24: 723-726. (doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.03.013) (Pubitemid 41133305)
35. Green, M., and, Malhi, G. 2006. Neural mechanisms of the cognitive control of emotion. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 18: 144-153. (doi:10.1111/j.1601- 5215.2006.00149.x) (Pubitemid 44438013)
36. Gross, J. J. 1998. The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2: 271-299. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 (Pubitemid 128608316)
37. Gross, J. J. 2007. Handbook of emotion regulation, New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
38. Gross, J. J., and, Barrett, L. F. 2011. Emotion generation and emotion regulation: One or two depends on your point of view. Emotion, 3: 8-16. (doi:10.1177/1754073910380974)
39. Gross, J. J., and, John, O. P. 2003. Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85: 348-362. (doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348) (Pubitemid 37394968)
40. Gross, J., and, Thompson, R. 2007. " Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations ". In Handbook of emotion regulation, Edited by: Gross, J. J. Vol. 50, 3-24. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
41. Guedj, E., Allali, G., Goetz, C., Le Ber, I., Volteau, M., Lacomblez, L., Vera, P. 2008. Frontal Assessment Battery is a marker of dorsolateral and medial frontal functions: A SPECT study in frontotemporal dementia. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 273: 84-87. (doi:10.1016/j.jns.2008.06.035)
42. Gyurak, A., Goodkind, M. S., Kramer, J. H., Bruce, L., and, Levenson, R. W. 2012. Executive functions and the down-regulation and up-regulation of emotion Cognition & Emotion. 26: 37-41.
43. Gyurak, A., Goodkind, M. S., Madan, A., Kramer, J. H., Miller, B. L., and, Levenson, R. W. 2009. Do tests of executive functioning predict ability to downregulate emotions spontaneously and when instructed to suppress?. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 9: 144-152. (doi:10.3758/CABN.9.2.144)
44. Hanfmann, E., Rickers-Ovsiankina, M., and, Goldstein, K. 1944. Case lanuti: Extreme concretization of behavior due to damage of the brain cortex. Psychological Monographs, 57: 1-72.
45. Henry, J. D., and, Crawford, J. R. 2004. A meta-analytic review of verbal fluency performance following focal cortical lesions. Neuropsychology, 18: 284-295. (doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.2.284) (Pubitemid 38520333)
46. Jones, P. S. 2009. " The neuropsychology of covert and overt speech: Implications for the study of private speech in children and adults ". In Private speech, executive functioning and the development of verbal self-regulation, Edited by: Winsler, A., Fernyhough, C. and Montero, I. 69-82. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
47. Jones-Gotman, M., and, Milner, B. 1977. Design fluency: The invention of nonsense drawings after focal cortical lesions. Neuropsychologia, 15: 653-674. (doi:10.1016/0028-3932(77)90070-7) (Pubitemid 8113136)
48. Joormann, J. 2005. " Inhibition, rumination, and mood regulation in depression ". In Cognitive limitations in aging and psychopathology: Attention, working memory, and executive functions, Edited by: Engle, R. W., Sedek, G., von Hecker, U. and McIntosh, D. N. 275-312. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
49. Judd, T. 1999. Neuropsychotherapy and community integration. Brain Illness, emotions and behaviour, New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
50. Kalisch, R. 2009. The functional neuroanatomy of reappraisal: Time matters. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33: 1215-1226. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.06.003
51. Kanske, P., Heissler, J., Schönfelder, S., Bongers, A., and, Wessa, M. 2010. How to regulate emotion? Neural networks for reappraisal and distraction. Cerebral cortex,: 1-10. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhq216
52. Klonoff, P. S. 2010. Psychotherapy after brain injury. Principles and techniques, New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
53. Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., and, Cuthbert, B. N. 2008. International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical Report A-8, Gainesville, FL: University of Florida.
54. Lezak, M., Howieson, D., and, Loring, D. 2004. Neuropsychological assessment, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
55. Lhermitte, F., Pillon, B., and, Serdaru, M. 1986. Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part I: Imitation and utilization behavior: A neuropsychological study of 75 patients. Annals of Neurology, 19: 326-334. (doi:10.1002/ana. 410190404) (Pubitemid 16109864)
56. Lieberman, M. D., Inagaki, T. K., Tabibnia, G., and, Crockett, M. J. 2011. Subjective responses to emotional stimuli during labeling, reappraisal, and distraction. Emotion, 11: 468-480. (doi:10.1037/a0023503)
57. Luria, A. R. 1959. The directive function of speech in development and dissolution. The directive function of speech in development and dissolution. WORD, 15: 341-464.
58. Luria, A. R. 1960. Experimental analysis of the development of voluntary action in children. Perspectives in Personality Research,: 139-149.
59. Luria, A. R. 1963. Restoration of function after brain injury, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
60. Luria, A. R. 1966. Higher cortical functions in man, London: Tavistock Publications.
61. Maguire, E. A., Nannery, R., and, Spiers, H. J. 2006. Navigation around London by a taxi driver with bilateral hippocampal lesions. Brain, 129: 2894-2907. doi:10.1093/brain/awl286 (Pubitemid 44684511)
62. McDonald, S., Hunt, C., henry, J., Dimoska, A., and, Bornhofen, C. 2010. Angry responses to emotional events: The role of impaired control and drive in people with severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology,: 1-10.
63. McRae, K., Ciesielski, B., and, Gross, J. J. 2011. Emotion unpacking cognitive reappraisal: Goals, tactics, and outcomes. Emotion,. doi:10.1037/a0026351
64. McRae, K., Hughes, B., Chopra, S., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Gross, J. J., and, Ochsner, K. N. 2010. The neural bases of distraction and reappraisal. Journal Of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22: 248-262. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21243
65. McRae, K., Jacobs, S. E., Ray, R. D., John, O. P., and, Gross, J. J. 2011. Individual differences in reappraisal ability: Links to reappraisal frequency, well-being, and cognitive control. Journal of Research in Personality,. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.10.003
66. McRae, K., Misra, S., Prasad, A. K., Pereira, S. C., and, Gross, J. J. 2011b. Bottom-up and top-down emotion generation: Implications for emotion regulation. Journal of Personality,. doi:10.1093/scan/nsq103
67. Mesulam, M. 2000. Principles of behavioral and cognitive neurology, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
68. Mesulam, M. 2002. " The human frontal lobes: Transcending the default mode through contingent encoding ". In Principles of frontal lobe functioning, Edited by: Stuss, D. T. and Knight, R. T. 8-30. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
69. Morin, A., and, Hamper, B. 2012. Self-reflection and the inner voice: Activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus during perceptual and conceptual self-referential thinking. Open Neuroimaging Journal, 6: 78-89. (doi:10.2174/1874440001206010078)
70. Muller, U., Jacques, S., Brocki, K., and, Zelazo, P. 2009. " The executive functions of language in preschool children ". In Private speech, executive functioning and the development of verbal self-regulation, Edited by: Wimsler, A., Fernyhugh, C. and Montero, I. 53-68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
71. Nive, K., Totterdell, P., and, Holman, D. 2009. A classification of controlled interpersonal affect regulation strategies. Emotion, 9: 498-509. (doi:10.1037/a0015962)
72. Obonsawin, M. C., Jefferis, S., Lowe, R., Crawford, J. R., Fernandes, J., Holland, L. 2007. A model of personality change after traumatic brain injury and the development of the Brain Injury Personality Scales. Journal Of Neurology, Neurosurgery, And Psychiatry, 78: 1239-1247. (doi:10.1136/jnnp.2004. 052654) (Pubitemid 350057289)
73. Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., and, Gabrieli, J. D. E. 2002. Rethinking feelings: An FMRI study of the cognitive regulation of emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14: 1215-1229. doi:10.1162/089892902760807212 (Pubitemid 35305826)
74. Ochsner, K. N., and, Gross, J. 2007. " The neural architecture of emotion regulation ". In Handbook of emotion regulation, Edited by: Gross, J. J. 87-109. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
75. Ochsner, K. N., and, Gross, J. J. 2008. Cognitive emotion regulation. Insights from social cognitive and affective neuroscience. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17: 153-158. (doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00566.x)
76. Ochsner, K. N., Ray, R. D., Cooper, J. C., Robertson, E. R., Chopra, S., Gabrieli, J. D. E., and, Gross, J. J. 2004. For better or for worse: Neural systems supporting the cognitive down-and up-regulation of negative emotion. NeuroImage, 23: 483-499. (doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.030) (Pubitemid 39370600)
77. Ochsner, K. N., Ray, R. R., Hughes, B., McRae, K., Cooper, J. C., Weber, J., Gabrieli, J. D. E. 2009. Bottom-up and top-down processes in emotion generation: Common and distinct neural mechanisms. Psychological Science, 20 (11): 1322-1331. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02459.x
78. Oei, N. Y. L., Veer, I. M., Wolf, O. T., Spinhoven, P., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., and, Elzinga, B. M. 2011. Stress shifts brain activation towards ventral affective areas during emotional distraction. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience,. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr024
79. Ogden, J. A. 1996. Fractured minds: A case-study approach to clinical neuropsychology, New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
80. Perret, E. 1974. The left frontal lobe of man and the suppression of habitual responses in verbal categorical behaviour. Neuropsychologia, 12: 323-330. (doi:10.1016/0028-3932(74)90047-5)
81. Petrides, M. 2005. Lateral prefrontal cortex: Architectonic and functional organization. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 360: 781-795. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2005. 1631) (Pubitemid 40885665)
82. Ponsford, J., Sloan, S., and, Snow, P. 1995. Traumatic brain injury. Rehabilitation for everyday adaptive living. Hove, East Sussex: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
83. Prigatano, G. P. 1989. Work, love and play after brain injury. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 53: 414-431. (Pubitemid 19235678)
84. Prigatano, G. P., Altman, I. M., and, O'Brien, K. P. 1990. Behavioral limitations traumatic brain injury patients tend to underestimate. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 4: 163-176. (doi:10.1080/13854049008401509) (Pubitemid 20304595)
85. Ray, R. D., McRae, K., Ochsner, K. N., and, Gross, J. J. 2010. Cognitive reappraisal of negative affect: Converging evidence from EMG and self-report. Emotion, 10: 587-592. (doi:10.1037/a0019015)
86. Rees, S. A., and, Skidmore, D. 2011. Thinking allowed: Use of egocentric speech after acquired brain injury (ABI). International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15: 925-939. (doi:10.1080/13603110903464361)
87. Ridderinkhof, K. R., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., Segalowitz, S. J., and, Carter, C. S. 2004. Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: The role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain and Cognition, 56: 129-140. (doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.016) (Pubitemid 39423876)
88. Rime, B. 2007. " Interpersonal emotion regulation ". In Handbook of emotion regulation, Edited by: Gross, J. 466-487. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
89. Robertson, I., Ward, T., Ridgeway, V., and, Nimmo-Smith, I. 1994. The Test of Everyday Attention (TEA), Bury St Edmunds, UK: Thames Valley Test Company.
90. Robertson, I., Ward, T., Ridgeway, V., and, Nimmo-Smith, I. A. N. 1996. The structure of normal human attention: The Test of Everyday Attention. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society,: 525-534. (doi:10.1017/ S1355617700001697) (Pubitemid 126449818)
91. Robinson, G., Shallice, T., Bozzali, M., and, Cipolotti, L. 2010. Conceptual proposition selection and the LIFG: Neuropsychological evidence from a focal frontal group. Neuropsychologia, 48: 1652-1663. (doi:10.1016/j. neuropsychologia.2010.02.010)
92. Robinson, G., Shallice, T., Bozzali, M., and, Cipolotti, L. 2012. The differing roles of the frontal cortex in fluency tests. Brain, 135: 2202-2214. (doi:10.1093/brain/aws142)
93. Rochat, L., Ammann, J., Mayer, E., Annoni, J., and, Van der Linden, M. 2009. Executive disorders and perceived socio-emotional changes after traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neuropsychology, 3: 213-227. (doi:10.1348/ 174866408X397656)
94. Rovner, B., and, Folstein, M. 1987. Mini-mental state exam in clinical practice. Hospital Practice, 22: 103-110.
95. Salas, C. E., Radovic, D., and, Turnbull, O. H. 2011. Inside-out: Comparing internally generated and externally generated basic emotions. Emotion,. doi: 10.1037/a002581
96. Salas, C. E. 2012. Surviving catastrophic reaction after brain injury: The use of self-regulation and self-other regulation. Neuropsychoanalysis, 14: 77-92.
97. Salas, C. E., Vaughan, F. L., Shanker, S., and, Turnbull, O. H. 2013. Stuck in a moment: Concreteness and psychotherapy after brain injury. Neuro-Disability and Psychotherapy, 1: 1-38.
98. Salas, C. E., Radovic, D., Yuen, K. S. L., & Turnbull, O. H. (in press). Opening to a new dimension: changes in emotional reactivity and emotion regulation in a case of executive impairment after left fronto-parietal.
99. Sarazin, M., Pillon, B., Giannakopoulos, P., Rancurel, G., Samson, Y., and, Dubois, B. 1998. Clinicometabolic dissociation of cognitive functions and social behavior in frontal lobe lesions. Neurology, 51: 142-148. (doi:10.1212/WNL.51.1.142) (Pubitemid 28345374)
100. Sawchyn, J. M., Mateer, C. A., and, Suffield, J. B. 2005. Awareness, emotional adjustment, and injury severity in postacute brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20: 301-314. (doi:10.1097/00001199-200507000-00003) (Pubitemid 40923443)
101. Scherer, K. R., and, Tannenbaum, P. H. 1986. Emotional experiences in everyday life: A survey approach. Motivation and Emotion, 10: 295-314. (doi:10.1007/BF00992106)
102. Scherer, K. R., Wranik, T., Sangsue, J., Tran, V., and, Scherer, U. 2004. Emotions in everyday life: Probability of occurrence, risk factors, appraisal and reaction patterns. Social Science Information, 43: 499-570. (doi:10.1177/0539018404047701) (Pubitemid 40005252)
103. Schiltz, C., Sorger, B., Caldara, R., Mayer, E., Goebel, R., and, Rossion, B. 2006. Impaired face discrimination in acquired prosopagnosia is associated with abnormal response to individual faces in the right middle fusiform gyrus. Cerebral Cortex,. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj005
104. Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., and, Demaree, H. A. 2008. Working memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience. Journal of Personality, 95: 1526-1540. doi:10.1037/a0013345
105. Scott, J., and, Schoenberg, M. 2011. " Frontal lobe/executive function ". In The little black book of neuropsychology: A syndrome-based approach, Edited by: Schoenberg, M. and Scott, J. 219-248. New York, NY: Springer.
106. Shallice, T., Stuss, D. T., Alexander, M. P., Picton, T. W., and, Derkzen, D. 2008. The multiple dimensions of sustained attention. Cortex,: 1-12.
107. Sheppes, G., and, Gross, J. J. 2011. Is timing everything? Temporal considerations in emotion regulation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15: 319-331. (doi:10.1177/1088868310395778)
108. Sherer, M., Boake, C., Levin, E., Silver, B. V., Ringholz, G., and, High, W. M. 1998. Characteristics of impaired awareness after traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 4: 380-387. (Pubitemid 28356466)
109. Stern, R., Singer, E., Duke, L., Singer, N., Morey, C., Daughtrey, E., and, Kaplan, E. 1994. The Boston qualitative scoring system for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure: Description and interrater reliability. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 8: 309-322. (doi:10.1080/13854049408404137) (Pubitemid 24227882)
110. Stuss, D. T. 2011. Functions of the frontal lobes: Relation to executive functions. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17: 1-7. doi:10.1017/S1355617711000695
111. Stuss, D. T., and, Benson, D. F. 1986. The frontal lobes, New York, NY: Raven Press.
112. Tate, R. L. 1999. Executive dysfunction and characterological changes after traumatic brain injury: Two sides of the same coin?. Cortex, 35: 39-55. (doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70784-6) (Pubitemid 29123820)
113. Urry, H. L. 2010. Seeing, thinking, and feeling: Emotion-regulating effects of gaze-directed cognitive reappraisal. Emotion, 10: 125-135. (doi:10.1037/a0017434)
114. Vanderhasselt, M. A., Baeken, C., Van Schuerbeek, P., Luypaert, R., and, De Raedt, R. 2012. Inter-individual differences in the habitual use of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression are associated with variations in prefrontal cognitive control for emotional information: An event related fMRI study. Biological Psychology,: 1-7.
115. Vygotsky, L. 1986/1934. Thought and language, London: The MIT Press.
116. Wechsler, D. 1981. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) Manual, New York, NY: The Psychological Corporation.
117. Wechsler, D. 1987. Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R) Manual, New York, NY: The Psychological Corporation.
118. Whitmer, A. J., and, Banich, M. T. 2007. Inhibition versus switching deficits in different forms of rumination. Psychological Science, 18: 546-553. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01936.x
119. Wilkins, A. J., Shallice, T., and, McCarthy, R. 1987. Frontal lesions and sustained attention. Neuropsychologia, 25: 359-365. (doi:10.1016/0028-3932(87) 90024-8) (Pubitemid 17080380)
120. Winsler, A. 2009. " Still talking to ourselves after all these years: A review of research on private speech ". In Private speech, executive functioning and the development of verbal self-regulation, Edited by: Wimsler, A., Fernyhugh, C. and Montero, I. 3-40. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
121. Ylvisaker, M., and, Feeney, T. 2000. Reconstruction of identity after brain injury. Brain Impairment, 12: 12-28. (doi:10.1375/brim.1.1.12)
122. Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983). The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 67, 361-370. (Pubitemid 13098606)