Prevention and treatment of biofilms by hybrid- and nanotechnologies

International Journal of Nanomedicine

Volumn 8, Issue , 2013, Pages 2809-2819

  Kasimanickam, Ramanathan K ^a   Ranjan, Ashish ^b   Asokan, G V ^c   Kasimanickam, Vanmathy R ^a   Kastelic, John P ^d  

^a WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BAHRAIN   (Bahrain)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antimicrobial; Biofilm; Drug carrier; Hybrid technology; Nanotechnology

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMPICILLIN; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BETA LACTOGLOBULIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; COLLAGEN; DENDRIMER; ECONAZOLE; FIBRONECTIN; GENTAMICIN; ISONIAZID; KETOCONAZOLE; LAMININ; LIPOSOME; MACROGOL; NANOMATERIAL; OXYTETRACYCLINE; PENICILLIN G; POLYMYXIN B; PYRAZINAMIDE; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE; RIFAMPICIN; SOLID LIPID NANOPARTICLE; STREPTOMYCIN; TEICOPLANIN; TOBRAMYCIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN; VITRONECTIN;

ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BACILLUS; BACILLUS CEREUS; BACTERICIDAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIOPHAGE; BACTERIUM ADHERENCE; BINDING AFFINITY; BIOFILM; CAMPYLOBACTER; CAULOBACTER; CELL SURFACE; CONCENTRATION RESPONSE; CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM; DEVICE APPLICATOR; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG RELEASE; DRUG SOLUBILITY; DRUG TARGETING; DRUG TRANSPORT; ELECTRIC CURRENT; ELECTRICITY; ENTEROCOCCUS; ESCHERICHIA COLI; GIARDIA LAMBLIA; HUMAN; HYBRIDIZATION; HYDROPHOBICITY; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES; MEDICAL DEVICE; MILK; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MOLECULAR RECOGNITION; NANOENCAPSULATION; NANOTECHNOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PH; PHOTODYNAMICS; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PHYSICAL PARAMETERS; PHYSICAL PHENOMENA; PSEUDOMONAS; PSEUDOMONAS FRAGI; RABBIT; REVIEW; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS; STREPTOCOCCUS; STREPTOCOCCUS SANGUINIS; SURFACE CHARGE; ULTRASOUND;

ANTIMICROBIAL; BIOFILM; DRUG CARRIER; HYBRID TECHNOLOGY; NANOTECHNOLOGY;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BIOFILMS; DRUG CARRIERS; NANOSTRUCTURES; NANOTECHNOLOGY;

EID: 84881055723     PISSN: 11769114     EISSN: 11782013     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S44100     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Gilbert P, Collier PJ, Brown MR. Influence of growth rate on susceptibil-ity to antimicrobial agents: biofilms, cell cycle, dormancy, and stringent response. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(10): 1865-1868.
2. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science. 1999;284(5418): 1318-1322.
3. Donlan RM. Biofilms: microbial life on surfaces. Emerging Infect Dis. 2002;8(9):881-890.
4. Stoodley P, Sauer K, Davies DG, Costerton JW. Biofilms as complex differentiated communities. Annu Rev Microbiol. 2002;56:187-209.
5. Keren I, Kaldalu N, Spoering A, Wang Y, Lewis K. Persister cells and tol-erance to antimicrobials. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2004;230(1):13-18.
6. Lewis K. Persister cells and the riddle of biofilm survival. Biochemistry Mosc. 2005;70(2):267-274.
7. Keren I, Shah D, Spoering A, Kaldalu N, Lewis K. Specialized persister cells and the mechanism of multidrug tolerance in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol. 2004;186(24):8172-8180.
8. Zita A, Hermansson M. Effects of bacterial cell surface structures and hydrophobicity on attachment to activated sludge flocs. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1997;63(3):1168-1170.
9. Dai X, Boll J, Hayes ME, Aston DE. Adhesion of Cryptosporidium parvum and Giardia lamblia to solid surfaces: the role of surface charge and hydrophobicity. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2004;34(4):259-263.
10. Mack D, Fischer W, Krokotsch A, et al. The intercellular adhesin involved in biofilm accumulation of Staphylococcus epidermidis is a linear beta-1,6-linked glucosaminoglycan: purification and structural analysis. J Bacteriol. 1996;178(1):175-183.
11. Husmark U, Rönner U. Forces involved in adhesion of Bacillus cereus spores to solid surfaces under different environmental conditions. J Appl Bacteriol. 1990;69(4):557-562.
12. Parkar SG, Flint SH, Palmer JS, Brooks JD. Factors influencing attachment of thermophilic bacilli to stainless steel. J Appl Microbiol. 2001;90(6):901-908.
13. Fletcher M. The effects of proteins on bacterial attachment to polystyrene. J Gen Microbiol. 1976;94(2):400-404.
14. Helke DM, Somers EB, Wong ACL. Attachment of Listeria mono-cytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium to stainless steel and buna-N in the presence of milk and milk components. J Food Prot. 1993;56: 479-484.
15. Sasahara KC, Zottaloa EH. Biofilm formation by Listeria monocyto-genes utilizes a primary colonizing microorganisms in flowing systems. J Food Prot. 1993;56:1022-1028.
16. Trachoo N, Brooks JD. Attachment and heat resistance of Campy-lobacter jejuni on Enterococcus faecium biofilm. Pak J Biol Sci. 2005;8(4):599-605.
17. Davies DG. Physiological events in biofilm formation. In: Allison D, Gilbert P, Lappin-Scott M, Wilson M, editors. Community Structure and Co-Operation in Biofilms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000:37-51.
18. Mafu AA, Roy D, Foulet J, Magny P. Attachment of Listeria monocytogenes to stainless steel, glass, polypropylene and rubber surfaces after short contact times. J Food Prot. 1990;53(9):742-746.
19. Giaouris E, Chorianopoulos N, Nychas GJ. Effect of temperature, pH, and water activity on biofilm formation by Salmonella enterica enter-itidis PT4 on stainless steel surfaces as indicated by the bead vortexing method and conductance measurements. J Food Prot. 2005;68(10): 2149-2154.
20. Flint SH, Brooks JD, Bremer PJ. The influence of cell surface proper-ties of thermophilic streptococci on attachment to stainless steel. J Appl Microbiol. 1997;83(4):508-517.
21. Flint SH, Brooks JD, Bremer PJ. Properties of the stainless steel sub-strate influencing the adhesion of thermoresistant Streptococci. J Food Eng. 2000;43(2):235-242.
22. Gilbert P, Evans DJ, Evans E, Duguid IG, Brown MR. Surface characteristics and adhesion of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Appl Bacteriol. 1991;71(1):72-77.
23. Chae MS, Schraft H, Truelstrup Hansen L, Mackereth R. Effects of physicochemical surface characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes strains on attachment to glass. Food Microbiol. 2006;23(3):250-259.
24. Chavant P, Martinie B, Meylheuc T, Bellon-Fontaine MN, Hebraud M. Listeria monocytogenes LO28: surface physicochemical properties and ability to form biofilms at different temperatures and growth phases. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(2):728-737.
25. Briandet R, Meylheuc T, Maher C, Bellon-Fontaine MN. Listeria monocytogenes Scott A: cell surface charge, hydrophobicity, and electron donor and acceptor characteristics under different environmental growth conditions. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1999;65(12):5328-5333.
26. Giovannacci I, Ermel G, Salvat G, Vendeuvre JL, Bellon-Fontaine MN. Physicochemical surface properties of five Listeria monocytogenes strains from a pork-processing environment in relation to serotypes, genotypes and growth temperature. J Appl Microbiol. 2000;88(6): 992-1000.
27. Paul JH, Jeffrey WH. Evidence for Separate Adhesion Mechanisms for Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Surfaces in Vibrio proteolytica. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1985;50(2):431-437.
28. Oakley JD, Taylor KG, Doyle RJ. Trypsin-susceptible cell surface characteristics of Streptococcus sanguis. Can J Microbiol. 1985;31(12): 1103-1107.
29. Cucarella C, Solano C, Valle J, Amorena B, Lasa I, Penadés JR. Bap, a Staphylococcus aureus surface protein involved in biofilm formation. J Bacteriol. 2001;183(9):2888-2896.
30. Arrizubieta MJ, Toledo-Arana A, Amorena B, Penadés JR, Lasa I. Calcium inhibits bap-dependent multicellular behavior in Staphylococ-cus aureus. J Bacteriol. 2004;186(22):7490-7498.
31. Tormo MA, Knecht E, Götz F, Lasa I, Penadés JR. Bap-dependent biof ilm formation by pathogenic species of Staphylococcus: evidence of horizontal gene transfer? Microbiology. 2005;151(Pt 7): 2465-2475.
32. Heilmann C, Gerke C, Perdreau-Remington F, Götz F. Characterization of Tn917 insertion mutants of Staphylococcus epidermidis affected in biofilm formation. Infect Immun. 1996;64(1):277-282.
33. Veenstra GJ, Cremers FF, van Dijk H, Fleer A. Ultrastructural orga-nization and regulation of a biomaterial adhesin of Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Bacteriol. 1996;178(2):537-541.
34. Heilmann C, Hussain M, Peters G, Götz F. Evidence for autolysin-mediated primary attachment of Staphylococcus epidermidis to a polystyrene surface. Mol Microbiol. 1997;24(5):1013-1024.
35. Elbert DL, Hubbell JA. Surface treatments of polymers for biocompatibility. Annu Rev Mater Sci. 1996;26:365-394.
36. Flemming HC, Wingender J. The biofilm matrix. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010;8(9):623-633.
37. An YH, Dickinson RB, Doyle RJ. Mechanisms of bacterial adhesion and pathogenesis of implant and tissue infections, in: An YH, Friedman RJ, editors. Handbook of Bacterial Adhesion: Principles, Methods, and Applications. Totowa: Humana Press Inc; 2000:1-27.
38. Piozzi A, Francolini I, Occhiaperti L, Venditti M, Marconi W. Antimicrobial activity of polyurethanes coated with antibiotics: a new approach to the realization of medical devices exempt from microbial colonization. Int J Pharm. 2004;280(1-2):173-183.
39. Woo GL, Yang ML, Yin HQ, Jaffer F, Mittelman MW, Santerre JP. Biological characterization of a novel biodegradable antimicrobial polymer synthesized with fluoroquinolones. J Biomed Mater Res. 2002;59(1):35-45.
40. Donelli G, Francolini I. Efficacy of antiadhesive, antibiotic and antiseptic coatings in preventing catheter-related infections: review. J Chemother. 2001;13(6):595-606.
41. Danese PN. Antibiofilm approaches: prevention of catheter colonization. Chem Biol. 2002;9(8):873-880.
42. Francolini I, Norris P, Piozzi A, Donelli G, Stoodley P. Usnic acid, a natural antimicrobial agent able to inhibit bacterial biofilm forma-tion on polymer surfaces. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(11): 4360-4365.
43. Rosenberg B, Vancamp L, Krigas T. Inhibition of cell division in Escherichia coli by electrolysis products from a platinum electrode. Nature. 1965;205:698-699.
44. Spadaro JA, Berger TJ, Barranco SD, Chapin SE, Becker RO. Antibacterial effects of silver electrodes with weak direct current. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1974;6(5):637-642.
45. Thibodeau EA, Handelman SL, Marquis RE. Inhibition and killing of oral bacteria by silver ions generated with low intensity direct current. J Dent Res. 1978;57(9-10):922-926.
46. Bolton L, Foleno B, Means B, Petrucelli S. Direct-current bactericidal effect on intact skin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1980;18(1): 137-141.
47. Costerton JW, Ellis B, Lam K, Johnson F, Khoury AE. Mechanism of electrical enhancement of efficacy of antibiotics in killing biofilm bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994;38(12):2803-2809.
48. Khoury AE, Lam K, Ellis B, Costerton JW. Prevention and control of bacterial infections associated with medical devices. ASAIO J. 1992;38(3):M174-M178.
49. Stewart PS, Wattanakaroon W, Goodrum L, Fortun SM, McLeod BR. Electrolytic generation of oxygen partially explains electrical enhance-ment of tobramycin efficacy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1999;43(2):292-296.
50. Stoodley P, deBeer D, Lappin-Scott HM. Influence of electric fields and pH on biofilm structure as related to the bioelectric effect. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41(9):1876-1879.
51. Anderl JN, Zahller J, Roe F, Stewart PS. Role of nutrient limitation and stationary-phase existence in Klebsiella pneumoniae biofilm resis-tance to ampicillin and ciprofloxacin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(4):1251-1256.
52. Borriello G, Werner E, Roe F, Kim AM, Ehrlich GD, Stewart PS. Oxygen limitation contributes to antibiotic tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in biofilms. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(7):2659-2664.
53. Ellwood DC, Keevil CW, Marsh PD, Brown CM, Wardell JN. Surface-associated growth. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 1982;297(1088):517-32.
54. Blenkinsopp SA, Khoury AE, Costerton JW. Electrical enhancement of biocide efficacy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1992;58(11):3770-3773.
55. Cevc G. Membrane electrostatics. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1990;1031(3): 311-382.
56. Pickering SA, Bayston R, Scammell BE. Electromagnetic augmentation of antibiotic efficacy in infection of orthopaedic implants. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2003;85(4):588-593.
57. Hong L, Yixin Y, Wang W, Youngyong YU. Low intensity ultrasound stimulates biological activity of aerobic activated sludge. Front Environ Sci Engin. 2007;1(1):67-72.
58. Carmen JC, Nelson JL, Beckstead BL, et al. Ultrasonic-enhanced gen-tamicin transport through colony biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. J Infect Chemother. 2004;10(4):193-199.
59. Rapoport N, Smirnov AI, Pitt WG, Timoshin AA. Bioreduction of Tempone and spin-labeled gentamicin by gram-negative bacteria: kinetics and effect of ultrasound. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1999;362(2): 233-241.
60. Rapoport N, Smirnov AI, Timoshin A, Pratt AM, Pitt WG. Factors affecting the permeability of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cell walls toward lipophilic compounds: effects of ultrasound and cell age. Arch Biochem Biophys. 1997;344(1):114-124.
61. Rediske AM, Roeder BL, Nelson JL, et al. Pulsed ultrasound enhances the killing of Escherichia coli biofilms by aminoglycoside antibiotics in vivo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44(3):771-772.
62. Carmen JC, Roeder BL, Nelson JL, et al. Ultrasonically enhanced vancomycin activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms in vivo. J Biomater Appl. 2004;18(4):237-245.
63. Pitt WG, Ross SA. Ultrasound increases the rate of bacterial cell growth. Biotechnol Prog. 2003;19(3):1038-1044.
64. He N, Hu J, Liu H, et al. Enhancement of vancomycin activity against biofilms by using ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55(11):5331-5337.
65. Norris P, Noble M, Francolini I, et al. Ultrasonically controlled release of ciprofloxacin from self-assembled coatings on poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) hydrogels for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm prevention. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(10):4272-4279.
66. Hamblin MR, Hasan T. Photodynamic therapy: a new antimicrobial approach to infectious disease? Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2004;3(5): 436-450.
67. Mitton D, Ackroyd R. A brief overview of photodynamic therapy in Europe. Photodiagnosis Photodyn Ther. 2008;5(2):103-111.
68. Hunt DW. Rostaporfin (Miravant Medical Technologies). IDrugs. 2002;5(2):180-186.
69. Nitzan Y, Gutterman M, Malik Z, Ehrenberg B. Inactivation of gram-negative bacteria by photosensitized porphyrins. Photochem Photobiol. 1992;55(1):89-96.
70. Wainwright M, Crossley KB. Photosensitising agents-circumventing resistance and breaking down biofilms: a review. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad. 2004;53(2):119-126.
71. Fontana CR, Abernethy AD, Som S, et al. The antibacterial effect of photodynamic therapy in dental plaque-derived biofilms. J Periodont Res. 2009;44(6):751-759.
72. Raghavendra M, Koregol A, Bhola S. Photodynamic therapy: a targeted therapy in periodontics. Aust Dent J. 2009;54 Suppl 1:S102-S109.
73. Soukos NS, Chen PS, Morris JT, et al. Photodynamic therapy for endodontic disinfection. J Endod. 2006;32(10):979-984.
74. Bisland SK, Chien C, Wilson BC, Burch S. Pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo studies to examine the potential use of photodynamic therapy in the treatment of osteomyelitis. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2006;5(1):31-38.
75. Donnelly RF, McCarron PA, Cassidy CM, Elborn JS, Tunney MM. Delivery of photosensitisers and light through mucus: investigations into the potential use of photodynamic therapy for treatment of Pseudomo-nas aeruginosa cystic fibrosis pulmonary infection. J Control Release. 2007;117(2):217-226.
76. Schuckert KH, Jopp S, Müller U. De novo grown bone on exposed implant surfaces using photodynamic therapy and recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2: case report. Implant Dent. 2006;15(4):361-365.
77. Donnelly RF, McCarron PA, Tunney MM, David Woolfson A. Potential of photodynamic therapy in treatment of fungal infections of the mouth. Design and characterisation of a mucoadhesive patch containing tolui-dine blue O. J Photochem Photobiol B, Biol. 2007;86(1):59-69.
78. Soukos NS, Socransky SS, Mulholland SE, Lee S, Doukas AG. Photomechanical drug delivery into bacterial biofilms. Pharm Res. 2000;17(4):405-409.
79. O'Neill JF, Hope CK, Wilson M. Oral bacteria in multi-species biofilms can be killed by red light in the presence of toluidine blue. Lasers Surg Med. 2002;31(2):86-90.
80. Gad F, Zahra T, Hasan T, Hamblin MR. Effects of growth phase and extra-cellular slime on photodynamic inactivation of gram-positive pathogenic bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48(6): 2173-2178.
81. Kim BY, Rutka JT, Chan WC. Nanomedicine. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(25):2434-2443.
82. Sanhai WR, Sakamoto JH, Canady R, Ferrari M. Seven challenges for nanomedicine. Nat Nanotechnol. 2008;3(5):242-244.
83. Gelperina S, Kisich K, Iseman MD, Heifets L. The potential advantages of nanoparticle drug delivery systems in chemotherapy of tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(12):1487-1490.
84. Dillen K, Vandervoort J, Van den Mooter G, Ludwig A. Evaluation of ciprofloxacin-loaded Eudragit RS100 or RL100/PLGA nanoparticles. Int J Pharm. 2006;314(1):72-82.
85. Swenson CE, Stewart KA, Hammett JL, Fitzsimmons WE, Ginsberg RS. Pharmacokinetics and in vivo activity of liposome-encapsulated gen-tamicin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1990;34(2):235-240.
86. Jones MN, Song YH, Kaszuba M, Reboiras MD. The interaction of phospholipid liposomes with bacteria and their use in the delivery of bactericides. J Drug Target. 1997;5(1):25-34.
87. Kim JH, Gias M, Jones MN. The adsorption of cationic liposomes to Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 1999;149(1):561-570.
88. Nightingale SD, Saletan SL, Swenson CE, et al. Liposome-encapsulated gentamicin treatment of Mycobacterium avium-Mycobacterium intra-cellulare complex bacteremia in AIDS patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1993;37(9):1869-1872.
89. Bermudez LE, Wu M, Young LS. Intracellular killing of Mycobacterium avium complex by rifapentine and liposome-encapsulated amikacin. J Infect Dis. 1987;156(3):510-513.
90. Pinto-Alphandary H, Andremont A, Couvreur P. Targeted delivery of antibiotics using liposomes and nanoparticles: research and applications. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2000;13(3):155-168.
91. Fountain MW, Weiss SJ, Fountain AG, Shen A, Lenk RP. Treatment of Brucella canis and Brucella abortus in vitro and in vivo by stable plurilamellar vesicle-encapsulated aminoglycosides. J Infect Dis. 1985;152(3):529-535.
92. Majumdar S, Flasher D, Friend DS, et al. Efficacies of liposome-encapsulated streptomycin and ciprofloxacin against Mycobac-terium avium-M. intracellulare complex infections in human peripheral blood monocyte/macrophages. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1992;36(12):2808-2815.
93. Sharma A, Sharma US. Liposomes in drug delivery: progress and limitations. Int J Pharm. 1997;154(2):123-140.
94. Jesorka A, Orwar O. Liposomes: technologies and analytical applications. Annu Rev Anal Chem (Palo Alto Calif). 2008;1:801-832.
95. DiTizio V, Ferguson GW, Mittelman MW, Khoury AE, Bruce AW, DiCosmo F. A liposomal hydrogel for the prevention of bacterial adhe-sion to catheters. Biomaterials. 1998;19(20):1877-1884.
96. Finelli A, Burrows LL, DiCosmo F., et al. Colonization-resistant antimicrobial-coated peritoneal dialysis catheters: evaluation in a newly developed rat model of persistent Pseudomonas aeruginosa peritonitis. Perit Dial Int. 2002;22(1):27-31.
97. Srinivasan A, Karchmer T, Richards A, Song X, Perl TM. A prospec-tive trial of a novel, silicone-based, silver-coated foley catheter for the prevention of nosocomial urinary tract infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2006;27(1):38-43.
98. Jones MN. Use of liposomes to deliver bactericides to bacterial biofilms. Meth Enzymol. 2005;391:211-228.
99. Kim HJ, Jones MN. The delivery of benzyl penicillin to Staphylococcus aureus biofilms by use of liposomes. J Liposome Res. 2004;14(3-4):123-139.
100. Catuogno C, Jones MN. The antibacterial properties of solid sup-ported liposomes on Streptococcus oralis biofilms. Int J Pharm. 2003; 257(1-2):125-140.
101. Ahmed K, Jones MN. The effect of shear on the desorption of lipo-somes adsorbed to bacterial biofilms. J Liposome Res. 2003;13(2): 187-197.
102. Ahmed K, Muiruri PW, Jones GH, Scott MJ, Jones MN. The effect of grafted poly(ethylene glycol) on the electrophoretic properties of phospholipid liposomes and their adsorption to bacterial biofilms. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2001;194(1-3):287-296.
103. Robinson AM, Bannister M, Creeth JE, Jones MN. The interaction of phospholipid liposomes with mixed bacterial biofilms and their use in the delivery of bactericide. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp. 2001;186(1-2):43-53.
104. Hill KJ, Kaszuba M, Creeth JE, Jones MN. Reactive liposomes encapsulating a glucose oxidase-peroxidase system with antibacterial activity. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1997;1326(1):37-46.
105. anli O, Biçer E, I iklan N. In vitro release study of diltiazem hydro-chloride from poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)/sodium alginate blend. JAPS. 2008;107(3):1973-1980.
106. Varshosaz J. Insulin delivery systems for controlling diabetes. Recent Pat Endocr Metab Immune Drug Discovery. 2007;16(1):25-40.
107. Ruggeri V, Francolini I, Donelli G, Piozzi A. Synthesis, character-ization, and in vitro activity of antibiotic releasing polyurethanes to prevent bacterial resistance. J Biomed Mater Res A. 2007;81(2): 287-298.
108. Crisante F, Francolini I, Bellusci M, Martinelli A, D'Ilario L, Piozzi A. Antibiotic delivery polyurethanes containing albumin and polyallylamine nanoparticles. Eur J Pharm Sci. 2009;36(4-5): 555-564.
109. Engelsman AF, van der Mei HC, Ploeg RJ, Busscher HJ. The phenom-enon of infection with abdominal wall reconstruction. Biomaterials. 2007;28(14):2314-2327.
110. Guillaume O, Lavigne JP, Lefranc O, Nottelet B, Coudane J, Garric X. New antibiotic-eluting mesh used for soft tissue reinforcement. Acta Biomater. 2011;7(9):3390-3397.
111. Blumberg HM, Rimland D, Kiehlbauch JA, Terry PM, Wachsmuth IK. Epidemiologic typing of Staphylococcus aureus by DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms of rRNA genes: elucidation of the clonal nature of a group of bacteriophage-nontypeable, ciprofloxacin-resistant, methicillin-susceptible S. aureus isolates. J Clin Microbiol. 1992;30(2):362-369.
112. von Eiff C, Peters G. In-vitro activity of ofloxacin, levofloxacin and D-ofloxacin against staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996;38(2):259-263.
113. Levy SB. Antibiotic resistance-the problem intensifies. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2005;57(10):1446-1450.
114. Zimmerli W, Widmer AF, Blatter M, Frei R, Ochsner PE. Role of rifampin for treatment of orthopedic implant-related staphylococcal infections: a randomized controlled trial. Foreign-Body Infection (FBI) Study Group. JAMA. 1998;279(19):1537-1541.
115. König DP, Schierholz JM, Münnich U, Rütt J. Treatment of staphy-lococcal implant infection with rifampicin-ciprofloxacin in stable implants. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 2001;121(5):297-299.
116. Guillaume O, Garric X, Lavigne JP, Van Den Berghe H, Coudane J. Multilayer, degradable coating as a carrier for the sustained release of antibiotics: preparation and antimicrobial efficacy in vitro. J Control Release. 2012;162(3):492-501.
117. Dastjerdi R, Montazer M. A review on the application of inorganic nano-structured materials in the modification of textiles: focus on anti-microbial properties. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2010;79(1): 5-18.
118. Weiss J, Takhistov P, McClements DJ. Functional materials in food nanotechnology. J Food Sci. 2006;71(9):R107-R116.
119. Rezaei-Zarchi S, Javed A, Ghani MJ, et al. Comparative study of antimicrobial activities of TiO2 and CdO nanoparticles against the pathogenic Strain of escherichia coli. Iran J Pathology. 2010;5(2): 83-89.
120. Gong P, Li H, He X, et al. Preparation and antibacterial activity of Fe3O4@Ag nanoparticles. Nanotechnology. 2007;18(28):604-611.
121. Schabes-Retchkiman PS, Canizal G, Herrera-Becerra R, Zorrilla C, Liu HB, Ascencio JA. Biosynthesis and characterization of Ti/Ni bimetallic nanoparticles. Opt Mater. 2006;29(1):95-99.
122. Gu H, Ho PL, Tong E, Wang L, Xu B. Presenting vancomycin on nanoparticles to enhance antimicrobial activities. Nano Lett. 2003;3(9): 1261-1263.
123. Ju-Nam Y, Lead JR. Manufactured nanoparticles: an overview of their chemistry, interactions and potential environmental implications. Sci Total Environ. 2008;400(1-3):396-414.
124. Ahmad Z, Pandey R, Sharma S, Khuller GK. Alginate nanoparticles as antituberculosis drug carriers: formulation development, pharma-cokinetics and therapeutic potential. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 2005;48(3):171-176.
125. Allaker RP. The use of nanoparticles to control oral biofilm formation. J Dent Res. 2010;89(11):1175-1186.
126. Giertsen E. Effects of mouthrinses with triclosan, zinc ions, copolymer, and sodium lauryl sulphate combined with fluoride on acid formation by dental plaque in vivo. Caries Res. 2004;38(5):430-435.
127. Chaloupka K, Malam Y, Seifalian AM. Nanosilver as a new genera-tion of nanoproduct in biomedical applications. Trends Biotechnol. 2010;28(11):580-588.
128. Hetrick EM, Shin JH, Paul HS, Schoenfisch MH. Anti-biofilm efficacy of nitric oxide-releasing silica nanoparticles. Biomaterials. 2009;30(14):2782-2789.
129. Smith HW, Huggins MB. Successful treatment of experimental Escherichia coli infections in mice using phage: its general superiority over antibiotics. J Gen Microbiol. 1982;128(2):307-318.
130. Doolittle MM, Cooney JJ, Caldwell DE. Tracing the interaction of bac-teriophage with bacterial biofilms using fluorescent and chromogenic probes. J Ind Microbiol. 1996;16(6):331-341.
131. Hughes KA, Sutherland IW, Jones MV. Biofilm susceptibility to bacte-riophage attack: the role of phage-borne polysaccharide depolymerase. Microbiology. 1998;144(Pt 11):3039-3047.
132. Sutherland IW. Phage-induced fucosidases hydrolysing the exopoly-saccharide of Klebsiella arogenes type 54 [A3(S1)]. Biochem J. 1967;104(1):278-285.
133. Hanlon GW, Denyer SP, Olliff CJ, Ibrahim LJ. Reduction in exopolysaccharide viscosity as an aid to bacteriophage penetration through Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2001;67(6):2746-2753.
134. Deveau H, Van Calsteren MR, Moineau S. Effect of exopolysaccha-rides on phage-host interactions in Lactococcus lactis. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002;68(9):4364-4369.
135. Kimura K, Itoh Y. Characterization of poly-γ-glutamate hydrolase encoded by a bacteriophage genome: possible role in phage infection of Bacillus subtilis encapsulated with poly-γ-glutamate. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003;69(5):2491-2497.
136. u W, Forster T, Mayer O, Curtin JJ, Lehman SM, Donlan RM. Bacterio-phage cocktail for the prevention of biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa on catheters in an in vitro model system. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54(1):397-404.
137. Donlan RM. Preventing biofilms of clinically relevant organisms using bacteriophage. Trends Microbiol. 2009;17(2):66-72.