Hypothalamic neurohormones and immune responses

Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience

Volumn , Issue JUL, 2013, Pages

  Quintanar, J Luis ^a   Guzmán Soto, Irene ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE AGUASCALIENTES   (Mexico)

Author keywords

CRF; CRH; Extrapituitary; GnRH; Immune system; LHRH; Receptors; TRH

Indexed keywords

CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR RECEPTOR; GAMMA INTERFERON; GONADORELIN; GONADORELIN ANTAGONIST; GONADORELIN DERIVATIVE; GONADORELIN RECEPTOR; HYPOTHALAMUS HORMONE; INTERLEUKIN 13; INTERLEUKIN 17; INTERLEUKIN 2; LEUPRORELIN; MESSENGER RNA; NEUROHORMONE; PROTIRELIN; PROTIRELIN RECEPTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; AUTOCRINE EFFECT; AUTOIMMUNITY; CELL PROLIFERATION; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; CYTOKINE RELEASE; GENE EXPRESSION; HALF LIFE TIME; HISTAMINE RELEASE; HORMONE RELEASE; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS; HYPOTHALAMUS; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOMODULATION; LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION; MAST CELL; MONONUCLEAR CELL; NEUROENDOCRINE SYSTEM; NONHUMAN; PARACRINE SIGNALING; REVIEW; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS;

EID: 84880602983     PISSN: 16625145     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2013.00056     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. Aguilera, G., Wynn, P. C., Harwood, J. P., Hauger, R. L., Millan, M. A., Grewe, C., and Catt, K. J. (1986). Receptor-mediated actions of corticotropin-releasing factor in pituitary gland and nervous system. Neuroendocrinology 43, 79-88.
2. Angioni, S., Petraglia, F., Gallineli, A., Cosarizza, A., Franceschi, C., Michela, M., Genazzani, A., Surico, N., and Genazani, A. (1993). Corticotropin releasing hormone modulates cytokines release in cultured human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Life Sci. 53, 1735-1742.
3. Ansari, M. A., Dhar, M., Spieker, S., Bakht, N., Rahman, A. M., Moore, W. V., and Jacobson, J. D. (2004). Modulation of diabetes with gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists in the nonobese mouse model of autoimmune diabetes. Endocrinology 145, 337-342.
4. Aten, R. F., Polan, M. L., Bayless, R., and Behrman, H. R. (1987). A gonadotropinreleasing hormone (GnRH)-like protein in human ovaries: similarity to the GnRH-like ovarian protein of the rat. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64, 1288-1293.
5. Audhya, T., Jain, R., and Hollander, C. S. (1991). Receptor-mediated immunomodulation by corticotropin-releasing factor. Cell Immunol. 134, 77-84.
6. Azad, N., Jurgens, J., Young, M., Reda, D., Duffner, L., and Kirsteins, L. (1991).Presence of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone in rat thymus. Prog. Neuro. Endocr. Immunol. 4, 113-120.
7. Azad, N., La Paglia, N., Jurgens, K. A., Kirsteins, L., Emanuele, N. V., Kelley, M. R., Lawrence, A. M., and Mohagheghpour, N. (1993). Immunoactivation enhances the concentration of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone peptide and its gene expression in human peripheral T-lymphocytes. Endocrinology 133, 215-223.
8. Baigent, S. M., and Lowry, P. J. (2000). mRNA expression profiles for corticotrophinreleasing factor (CRF), urocortin, CRF receptors and CRF-binding protein in peripheral rat tissues. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 25, 43-52.
9. Bale, T. L., and Vale, W. W. (2004). CRF and CRF receptors: role in stress responsivity and other behaviors. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 44, 525-557.
10. Barrera, C.M., Kastin, A.J., Fasold, M.B., and Banks, W.A. (1991). Bidirectional saturable transport of LHRH across the blood-brain barrier. Am. J. Physiol. 261, E312-E318.
11. Batticane, N., Morale, M. C., Gallo, F., Farinella, Z., and Marchetti, B. (1991). Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone signaling at the lymphocyte involves stimulation of interleukin-2 receptor expression. Endocrinology 129, 277-286.
12. Besedovsky, H., del Rey, A., Sorkin, E., and Dinarello, C.A. 1986. Immunoregulatory feedback between interleukin-1 and glucocorticoid hormones. Science. 233, 652-654.
13. Bílek, R., Bičíková, M., and Šafařík, L. (2011). TRH-Like Peptides. Physiol. Res. 60, 207-215.
14. Blum, C., Grozdea, J., and Vergnes, H. (1976). Cytochemical aspects of human polynuclear neutrophils under the in vitro and in vivo action of TRH. C R Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. 170, 666-671.
15. Boler, J., Enzmann, F., Folkers, K., Bowers, C. Y., Shally, A. V. (1969). The identity of chemical and hormonal properties of the thyrotropin releasing hormone and pyroglutamyl-histidil-proline amide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 37, 705-710.
16. Boyadjieva, N., Advis, J. P., and Sarkar, D. K. (2006). Role of beta-endorphin, corticotropin-releasing hormone, and autonomic nervous system in mediation of the effect of chronic ethanol on natural killer cell cytolytic activity. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 30, 1761-1767.
17. Brod, S., and Bauer, V. (2013). Ingested (oral) thyrotropin releasing factor (TRH) inhibits EAE. Citokine 61, 323-328.
18. Brouxhon, S. M., Prasad, A. V., Joseph, S. A., Felten, D. L., and Bellinger, D. L. (1998) Localization of corticotropin releasing factor in primary and secondary lymphoid organs of the rat. Brain Behav. Immun. 12, 107-122.
19. Burgus, R., Dunn, T. F., Desiderio, D., Vale, W., Guillemin, R. (1969). Derives polypeptidiques de syntheses doues d'activite hypophysiotrope TRF. Nouvelles observations. CR Acad. Sci. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. D. 269, 226-228.
20. Calderón-Vallejo, D., and Quintanar, J.L. (2012). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone treatment improves locomotor activity, urinary function and neurofilament protein expression after spinal cord injury in ovariectomized rats. Neurosci. Lett. 515, 187-190.
21. Cao, J., Papadopoulou, N., Kempuraj, D., Boucher, W. S., Sugimoto, K., Cetrulo, C. L., and Theoharides, T. C. (2005). Human mast cells express corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptors and CRH leads to selective secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor. J. Immunol. 174, 7665-7675.
22. Cavanagh, P. C., Dunk, C., Pampillo, M., Szereszewski, J. M., Taylor, J. E., Kahiri, C., Han, V., Lye, S., Bhattacharya, M., and Babwah, A. V. (2009). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone-regulated chemokine expression in human placentation. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 297, 17-27.
23. Chatzaki, E., Murphy, B. J., Wang, L., Million, M., Ohning, G. V., Crowe, P. D., Petroski, R., Taché, Y., and Grigoriadis, D. E. (2004). Differential profile of CRF receptor distribution in the rat stomach and duodenum assessed by newly developed CRF receptor antibodies. J. Neurochem. 88, 1-11.
24. Chen, A., Ganor, Y., Rahimipour, S., Ben-Aroya, N., Koch, Y., and Levite, M. (2002). The neuropeptides GnRH-II and GnRH-I are produced by human T cells and trigger laminin receptor gene expression, adhesion, chemotaxis and homing to specific organs. Nat. Med. 8, 1421-1426.
25. Chen, H-F., Jeung, E-B., Stephenson, M., and Leung P. C. K. (1999). Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells Express Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), GnRH Receptor, and Interleukin-2 Receptor γ-Chain Messenger Ribonucleic Acids That Are Regulated by GnRH in vitro. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 84, 743-750.
26. Chen, X. Q., Dong, J., Niu, C. Y., Fan, J. M., and Du, J. Z. (2007). Effects of hypoxia on glucose, insulin, glucagon, and modulation by corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 in the rat. Endocrinology 148, 3271-3278.
27. Cheng, C. K., and Leung, P. C. K. (2005). Molecular Biology of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH)-I, GnRH-II, and Their Receptors in Humans. Endocr. Rev. 26, 283-306.
28. Cheung, L. W., and Wong, A. S. (2008). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone: GnRH receptor signaling in extrapituitary tissues. FEBS J. 275, 5479-5495.
29. Chiamolera, M. I., and Wondisford, F. E. (2009). Minireview: Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone and the Thyroid Hormone Feedback Mechanism. Endocrinology 150: 1091-1096.
30. Ciechanowska, M., Lapot, M., Mateusiak, K., and Przekop, F. (2010). Neuroendocrine regulation of GnRH release and expression of GnRH and GnRH receptor genes in the hypothalamus-pituitary unit in different physiological states. Reprod. Biol. 10, 85-124.
31. Clarke, I. J., and Pompolo, S. (2005). Synthesis and secretion of GnRH. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 88, 29-55.
32. Colson, A.-O., Perlman, J. H., Smolyar, A., Gershengorn, M. C., and Osman, R. (1998). Static and Dynamic Roles of Extracellular Loops in G-Protein-Coupled Receptors: A Mechanism for Sequential Binding of Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone to Its Receptor. Biophys. J. 74, 1087-1100.
33. Conn, P. M., and Janovick, J. A. (2009). Trafficking and quality control of the gonadotropin releasing hormone receptor in health and disease. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 299, 137-145.
34. Dixit, V. D., Sridaran, R., Edmonsond, M. A., Taub, D., and Thompson, W. E. (2003a). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone attenuates pregnancy-associated thymic involution and modulates the expression of antiproliferative gene product prohibitin. Endocrinology 144, 1496-1505.
35. Dixit, V. D., Yang, H., Udhayakumar, V., and Sridaran, R. (2003b). Gonadotropinreleasing hormone alters the T helper cytokine balance in the pregnant rat. Biol. Reprod. 68, 2215-2221.
36. Dong, K. W., Yu, K. L., and Roberts, J. L. (1993). Identification of a major up-stream transcription start site for the human progonadotropin-releasing hormone gene used in reproductive tissues and cell lines. Mol. Endocrinol. 7, 1654-1666.
37. Duckett, R. J., Hedger, M. P., McLachlan, R. I., and Wreford, N. G. The effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone immunization and recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone on the Leydig cell and macrophage populations of the adult rat testis. J. Androl. 18, 417-423.
38. Dufau, M. L., Tinajero, J. C., and Fabbri, A. (1993). Corticotropin-releasing factor: an antireproductive hormone of the testis. FASEBJ. 7, 299-307.
39. Eidne, K. A., Flanagan, C. A., Harris, N. S., and Millar, R. P. (1987). Gonadotropinreleasing hormone (GnRH)-binding sites in human breast cancer cell lines and inhibitory effects of GnRH antagonists. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64, 425-432.
40. Emanuele, N. V., Emanuele, M. A., Tentler, J., Kirsteins, L., Azad, N., and Lawrence, A. M. (1990). Rat spleen lymphocytes contain an immunoactive and bioactive luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. Endocrinology 126, 2482-2486.
41. Emeric-Sauval, E. (1986). Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) a review. Psychoneuroendocrinology 11, 277-294.
42. Emons, G., and Schally, A. V. (1994).The use of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone agonists and antagonists in gynecological cancers. Hum. Reprod. 9, 1362-1379.
43. Emons, G., Ortmann, O., Becker, M., Irmer, G., Springer, B., Laun, R., Hölzel, F., Schulz, K. D., and Schally, A. V. (1993b). High-affinity binding sites and direct antiproliferative effects of LHRH analogues in human ovarian cancer cell lines. Cancer Res. 53, 5439-5446.
44. Emons, G., Schröder, B., Ortmann, O., Westphalen, S., Schulz, K. D., and Schally, A. V. (1993a). High affinity binding and direct antiproliferative effects of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone analogs in human endometrial cancer cell lines. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77, 1458-1464.
45. Engel, S., Neumann, S., Kaur, N., Monga, V., Jain, R., Northup, J., and Gershengorn, M. C. (2006). Low Affinity Analogs of Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone Are Super-agonists. J. Biol. Chem. 281, 3103-13109.
46. Engler, D., Scanlon, M. F., and Jackson, I. M. D. (1981).Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone in the Systemic Circulation of the Neonatal Rat Is Derived from the Pancreas and Other Extraneural Tissues. J. Clin. Invest. 67, 800-808.
47. Esposito, P., Chandler, N., Kandere, K., Basu, S., Jacobson, S., Conolly, R., and Theoharides, T. C. (2002). Corticotropin-releasing hormone and brain mast cells regulate BBB permeability induced by acute stress. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therapeut. 303, 1061-1066.
48. Feng, P., Carnell, N. E., Kim, U. J., Jacobs, S., and Wilber, J. F. (1992). The human testis: a novel locus for thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) and TRH mRNA. Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians. 105, 222-228.
49. Fukusumi, S., Ogi, K., Onda, H. and Hinuma, S. (1995). Distribution of thyrotropinreleasing hormone receptor mRNA in rat peripheral tissues. Regul. Pept. 57, 115-121.
50. Gary, K. A., Sevarino, K. A., Yarbrough, G. G., Prange Jr., A. J., and Winokur, A. (2003). The Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) Hypothesis of Homeostatic Regulation: Implications for TRH-Based Therapeutics. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 305, 410-416.
51. Gill, C. J., and Rissman, E. F. (1998). Mast cells in the neonate musk shrew brain: implications for neuroendocrine immune interactions. Brain Res. Dev. Brain Res. 111, 129-136.
52. Goldberg, G. L., King, C. G., Nejat, R. A., Suh, D. Y., Smith, O. M., Bretz, J. C., Samstein, R. M., Dudakov, J. A., Chidgey, A. P., Chen-Kiang, S., Boyd, R. L., and van den Brink, M. R. (2009). Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone enhances T cell recovery following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. J. Immunol. 182, 5846-5854.
53. Grammatopoulos, D. K., and Chrousos, G. P. (2002).Functional characteristics of CRH receptors and potential clinical applications of CRH-receptor antagonists. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 13, 436-444.
54. Grasso, G., Massai, L., De Leo, V. and Muscettola, M. The effect of LHRH and TRH on human Interferon-y production in vivo and in vitro. Life Sci. 62, 2005-2014.
55. Gravanis, A., and Margioris, A. (2005). The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family of neuropeptides in inflammation: potential therapeutic applications. Bioactive peptides for immune disease therapy. Curr. Med. Chem. 13, 1503-1512.
56. Gründker, C., Schulz, K., Günthert, A. R., and Emons, G. (2000). Luteinizing hormonereleasing hormone induces nuclear factor kappa B-activation and inhibits apoptosis in ovarian cancer cells. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 85, 3815-3820.
57. Guillemin, R. (2005). Hypothalamic hormones a.k.a. hypothalamic releasing factors. J. Endocrinol. 184, 11-28.
58. Guzmán-Soto, I., Salinas, E., Hernández-Jasso, I., and Quintanar, J.L. (2012). Leuprolide acetate, a GnRH agonist, improves experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: a possible therapy for multiple sclerosis. Neurochem. Res. 37, 2190-2197.
59. Haddad E. E., Mashaly, M. M. (1992). Augmentation of natural cell-mediated cytotoxic activity by supernatant from in vitro mitogen-stimulated, in vivo hormone-treated lymphocytes in immature male (K strain) chickens. Immunol. Invest. 21, 365-375.
60. Hagan, P., Poole, S. and Bristow, A. F. (1992). Immunosuppressive activity of corticotropin releasing factor: Inhibition of IL-1 and IL-6 production by human mononuclear cells. Biochem. J. 281, 251-254.
61. Harbour, D. V., Kruger, T. E., Coppenhaver, D., Smith, E. M., and Meyer, W. J. (1981). Differential expression and regulation of thyrotropin (TSH) in T cell lines. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 64, 229-241.
62. Harbuz, M.S., Stephanou, A., Sarlis, N. and Lightman, S.L. 1992. The effects of recombinant human IL-1-alpha, Il-1-beta or IL-6 on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation. J. Endocrinol. 133, 349-355.
63. Harris, G. W. (1948). Neural control of the pituitary gland. Physiol. Rev. 28, 139-179.
64. Harrison, G. S., Wierman, M. E., Nett, T. M., and Glode, L. M. (2004). Gonadotropinreleasing hormone and its receptor in normal and malignant cells. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 11, 725-748.
65. Hart, R., Wagner, F., Steffens, W., Lersch, C., Dancygier, H., Duntas, L., and Classen, M. (1990). Effect of thyrotropin-releasing hormone on immune functions of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Regul. Pept. 27, 335-342.
66. Heinrichs, S. C., Cole, B. J., Pich, E. M., Menzaghi, F., Koob, G. F., and Hauger, R. L. (1992). Endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor modulates feeding induced by neuropeptide Y or a tail-pinch stressor. Peptides 13, 879-884.
67. Hinkle, P. M., Gehret, A. U., and Jones, B. W. (2012). Desensitization, trafficking, and resensitization of the pituitary thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Front. Neurosci. 6:180. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00180.
68. Ho, H. N., Chen, H. F., Chen, S. U., Chao, K. H., Yang, Y. S., Huang, S. C., Lee, T. Y., and Gill, T. J. 3rd. (1995). Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist induces down-regulation of the CD3+CD25+ lymphocyte subpopulation in peripheral blood. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 33, 243-252.
69. Inoue, K., Valdez, G. R., Reyes, T. M., Reinhardt, L. E., Tabarin, A., Rivier, J., Vale W. W., Sawchenko P. E., Koob, G. F., and Zorrilla, E.P. (2003). Human urocortin II, a selective agonist for the type 2 corticotropin-releasing factor receptor decreases feeding and drinking in the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 305, 385-393.
70. Irwin, M. R. (1993). Brain corticotropin releasing hormone and interleukin-lβ induced suppression of specific antibody production. Endocrinology. 133, 1352-1360.
71. Irwin, M. R., Vale W., and Britton, K. T. (1987). Central corticotropin-releasing factor suppresses natural killer cytotoxicity. Brain Behav. Immun. 1, 81-87.
72. Jacobson, J. D., Nisula, B. C., and Steinberg, A. D. (1994). Modulation of the expression of murine lupus by gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs. Endocrinology 134, 2516-2523.
73. Janssen, D., and Kozicz, T. (2013). Is it really a matter of simple dualism? Corticotropinreleasing factor receptors in body and mental health. Front. Endocrinol. (Lausanne) 4, 28. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2013.00028.
74. Justice, N. J., Yuan, Z. F., Sawchenko, P. E., and Vale, W. (2008). Type 1 corticotropinreleasing factor receptor expression reported in BAC transgenic mice: implications for reconciling ligand-receptor mismatch in the central corticotropin-releasing factors system. J. Comp. Neurol. 511, 479-496.
75. Kalra, P. S., Edwards, T. G., Xu, B., Jain, M., and Kalra, S. P. (1998). The antigonadotropic effects of cytokines: the role of neuropeptides. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 15, 321-332.
76. Kamath, J., Yarbrough, G. G., Prange Jr., A. J., and Winokur, A. (2009). The thyrotropinreleasing hormone (TRH)-immune system homeostatic hypothesis. Pharmacol. Ther. 121, 20-28.
77. Karalis, K., Muglia, L. J., Bae, D., Hilderbrand, H., and Majzoub, J. A. (1997). CRH and the immune system. J. Neuroimmunol. 72, 131-136.
78. Kastin, A.J., Coy, D.H., Schally, A.V., and Zadina, J.E. (1980). Dissociation of Effects of LH-RH Analogs on Pituitary Regulation and Reproductive Behavior. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.13, 913-914.
79. Kawahito, Y., Sano, H., Mukai, S., Asai, K., Kimura, S., Yamamura, Y., Kato, H., Chrousos, G. P., Wilder, R., and Kondo, M. (1995). Corticotropin releasing hormone in colonic mucosa in patients with ulcerative colitis. Gut 37, 544-551.
80. Kawano, H., Daikoku, S., Saito, S. (1983). Location of thyrotropin-releasing hormone-like immunoreactivity in rat pancreas. Endocrinology 112, 951-955.
81. Kempuraj, D., Papadopoulou, N. G., Lytinas, M., Huang, M., Kandere-Grzybowska, K., Madhappan, B., Boucher, W., Christodoulou, S., Athanassiou, A. and Theoharides, T. C. (2004). Corticotropin-releasing hormone and its structurally related urocortin are synthesized and secreted by human mast cells. Endocrinology 145, 43-48.
82. Khalil, M. H., Silverman, A. J., and Silver, R. (2003). Mast cells in the rat brain synthesize gonadotropin-releasing hormone. J. Neurobiol. 56, 113-124.
83. Khan, K. N., Kitajima, M., Hiraki, K., Fujishita, A., Sekine, I., Ishimaru, T., and Masuzaki, H. (2010). Changes in tissue inflammation, angiogenesis and apoptosis in endometriosis, adenomyosis and uterine myoma after GnRH agonist therapy. Hum. Reprod. 25, 642-653.
84. Khan, M. A., Ferro, V. A., and Stimson, W. H. (2003). Use of a highly specific monoclonal antibody against the central variable amino acid sequence of mammalian gonadotropin releasing hormone to evaluate GnRH-I tissue distribution compared with GnRH-I binding sites in adult male rats. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 49, 239-248.
85. Khomane, K. S., Meena, C. L., Jain, R., and Bansal, A. K. (2011). Novel thyrotropinreleasing hormone analogs: a patent review. Expert. Opin. Ther. Pat. 21, 1673-1691.
86. Kobayashi, H., Ishizuka, T., and Y. Okayama. (2000). Human mast cells and basophils as sources of cytokines. Clin. Exp. Allergy 30, 1205-1212.
87. Komorowski, J., and Stepień, H. (1995). Somatostatin (SRIF) stimulates the release of interleukin-6 (IL-6) from human peripheral blood monocytes (PBM) in vitro. Neuropeptides 29, 77-81.
88. Komorowski, J., Stepled, H., and Pawlikowski, M. (1993). The Evidence of Thyroliberin/Triiodothyronin Control of TSH Secretory Response from Human Peripheral Blood Monocytes Cultured in vitro. Neuropeptides 25, 31-34.
89. Koob, G. F., and Heinrichs, S. C. (1999).A role for corticotrophin-releasing factor and urocortin in behavioral responses to stressors. Brain Res. 848, 141-152.
90. Korosi, A., Kozicz, T., Richter, J., Veening, J. G., Olivier, B., and Roubos, E. W. (2007). Corticotropin-releasing factor, urocortin 1,and their receptors in the mouse spinal cord. J. Comp. Neurol. 502, 973-989.
91. Koshida, H., and Kotake, Y. (1993). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone enhances the superoxide anion production of rabbit peritoneal macrophages stimulated with N-Formyl-Methionyl-Leucyl-Phenylalanine and opsonized zymosan. Life Sci. 53, 725-731.
92. Kruger, T. E., Smith, L. R., Harbour, D. V., and Blalock, J. E. (1989). Thyrotropin: An endogenous regulator of the in vitro immune response. J. Immunol. 142, 744-747.
93. Kuhne, C., Puk, O., Graw, J., Hrabe de Angelis, M., Schutz, G., Wurst, W., and Deussing, J. M. (2012). Visualizing corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor type 1 expression and neuronal connectivities in the mouse using a novel multifunctional allele. J. Comp. Neurol. 520, 3150-3180.
94. Kukaǐn, E. M., Mutsenietse, R. K., and Klusha, V. E. (1982). Comparison of the neuroand immunomodulator properties of low-molecular neuropeptides. Biull. Eksp. Biol. Med. 94, 79-82.
95. Kunert-Radek, J., Pawlikowski, M., Stepien, H., and Janecka, A. (1991). Inhibitory effect of thyrotropin releasing hormone on spontaneous proliferation of mouse spleen lymphocytes in vitro. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 181, 562-565.
96. Lenz, H. J. (1987). Extrapituitary effects of corticotropin-releasing factor. Horm Metab Res. Suppl. 16, 17-23.
97. Lersch, C., Hammer, C., Krombach, F., and Dancygier, H. (1989). Effect of thyrotropinreleasing hormone (TRH) on the chemiluminescence (CL) activity of human mononuclear cells. J. Clin. Lab. Immunol. 28, 69-71.
98. Lesnikov, V.A., Korneva, E.A., Dall'ara, A., and Pierpaoli, W. (1991). The involvement of pineal gland and melatonin in immunity and aging: II. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and melatonin forestall involution and promote reconstitution of the thymus in anterior hypothalamic area (AHA)-lesioned mice. Int. J. Neurosci. 62, 141-153.
99. Levite, M. (2008). Neurotransmitters activate T-cells and elicit crucial functions via neurotransmitter receptors. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 8, 460-471.
100. Lewis, K., Li, C., Perrin, M. H., Blount, A., Kunitake, K., Donaldson, C., Vaughan, J., Reyes, T. M., Gulyas, J., Fischer, W., Bilezikjian, L., Rivier, J., Sawchenko, P. E., and Vale, W. W. (2001). Identification of urocortin III, an additional member of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) family with high affinity for the CRF2 receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98, 7570-7575.
101. Limonta, P., and Manea, M. (2013). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors as molecular therapeutic targets in prostate cancer: Current options and emerging strategies. Cancer Treat. Rev. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2012.12.003.
102. Lovenberg, T. W., Chalmers, D. T., Liu, C., and DeSouza, E. B. (1995). CRF2 alpha and CRF2 beta receptor mRNAs are differentially distributed between the rat central nervous system and peripheral tissues. Endocrinology 136, 4139-4142.
103. Magon, N. (2011). Gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists: Expanding vistas. Indian J Endocrinol. Metab. 15, 261-267.
104. Maier, C., Marchetti, B., LeBoeuf, R., and Blalock, J. (1992). Thymocytes express a mRNA that is identical to hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone mRNA. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 12, 447-454.
105. Maillot, C., Million, M., Wei, J. Y., Gauthier, A., and Tache, Y. (2000). Peripheral corticotropin-releasing factor and stress-stimulated colonic motor activity involve type 1 receptor in rats. Gastroenterology 119, 1569-1579.
106. Mann, D. R., Akinbami, M. A., Lunn, S.F., Fraser, H. M., Gould, K. G., and Ansari, A. A. (2000). Endocrine-immune interaction: Alterations in immune function resulting from neonatal treatment with a GnRH antagonist and seasonality in male primates. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 44, 30-40.
107. Mann, D. R., Ansari, A. A., Akinbami, M. A., Wallen, K., Gould, K. G., and McClure, H. M. (1994). Neonatal treatment with luteinizing hormone releasing hormone analogs alters peripheral lymphocyte subsets and cellular and humorally mediated immune responses in juvenile and adult male monkeys. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 78, 292-298.
108. Marchetti, B., Guarcello, V., Morale, M. C., Bartoloni, G., Farinella, Z., Cordaro, S., and Scapagnini U. (1989). Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone binding sites in the rat thymus: characteristics and biological function. Endocrinology 125, 1025-1036.
109. Marchetti, B., Guarcello, V., Morale, M. C., Bartoloni, G., Palumbo, G. Jr., Raiti, F., Cutuli, N., Farinella, Z., Scapagnini, U. (1990). A physiological role for the neuropeptide luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) during the maturation of thymus gland function. Int. J. Neurosci. 51, 287-289.
110. Marone, G. S., Galli, J., and Kitamura, Y. (2002). Probing the roles of mast cells and basophils in natural and acquired immunity, physiology and disease. Trends Immunol. 23, 425-427.
111. Martino, E., Nardi, M., Vaudagna, G., Simonetti, S., Cilotti, A., and Pinchera, A. (1980b). Presence of thyrotropin-releasing hormone in porcine and bovine retina. Experientia 36, 622-623.
112. Martino, E., Nardi, M., Vaudagna, G., Simonetti, S., Cilotti, A., Pinchera, A., Venturi, G., Seo, H., and Baschieri, L. (1980a). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone-like material in human retina. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 3, 267-271.
113. Mastorakos, G., Karoutsou, E. I., and Mizamtsidi, M. (2006). Corticotropin releasing hormone and the immune/ inflammatory response. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 155, S77-S84.
114. Matre, V., Høvring, P. I., Fjeldheim, Å.-K., Helgeland, L., Orvain, C., Andersson, K. B., Gautvik, K. M., and Gabrielsen, O. S. (2003). The human neuroendocrine thyrotropinreleasing hormone receptor promoter is activated by the haematopoietic transcription factor c-Myb. Biochem. J. 372, 851-859.
115. McArdle C. A., Franklin, J., Green, L., and Hislop J. N. (2002). Signalling, cycling and desensitisation of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone receptors. J. Endocrinol. 173, 1-11.
116. McEvoy, A. N., Bresnihan, B., FitzGerald, O., and Murphy, E. P. (2001). Corticotropinreleasing hormone signaling in synovial tissue from patients with early inflammatory arthritis is mediated by the type 1 corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Arthritis Rheum. 44, 1761-1767.
117. Mellado, M., Fernández-Agulló, T., Rodríguez-Frade, J. M., García San Frutos, M., de la Peña, P., Martínez-A C., and Montoya, E. (1999). Expression analysis of the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor (TRHR) in the immune system using agonist anti-TRHR monoclonal antibodies. FEBS Lett. 451, 308-314.
118. Millar, R. P. (2005). GnRHs and GnRH receptors. Anim Reprod Sci. 88, 5-28.
119. Min, J. Y., Park, M. H., Lee, J. K., Kim, H. J., and Park, Y. K. (2009). Gonadotropinreleasing hormone modulates immune system function via the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway in murine Raw264.7 macrophages. Neuroimmunomodulation 16, 177-184.
120. Monga, V., Meena, C. L., Rajput, S., Pawar, C., Sharma, S. S., Lu, X., Gershengorn, M. C., and Jain, R. (2011). Synthesis, Receptor Binding, and CNS Pharmacological Studies of New Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) Analogues. Chem. Med. Chem. 6, 531-543.
121. Montagne, J.-J., Ladram, A., Nicolas, P., and Bulant, M. (1999). Cloning of Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone Precursor and Receptor in Rat Thymus, Adrenal Gland, and Testis. Endocrinology 140, 1054-1059.
122. Morale, M. C., Batticane, N., Bartoloni, G., Guarcello, V., Farinella, Z., Galasso, M. G., and Marchetti, B. (1991). Blockade of central and peripheral luteinizing hormonereleasing hormone (LHRH) receptors in neonatal rats with a potent LHRH-antagonist inhibits the morphofunctional development of the thymus and maturation of the cellmediated and humoral immune responses. Endocrinology 128, 1073-1085.
123. Morley, J. E. (1979). Extrahypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) its distribution and its functions. Life Sci. 25, 1539-1550.
124. Mousa, S. A., Bopaiah, C. P., Stein, C., and Schafer, M. (2003). Involvement of corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor subtypes 1 and 2 in peripheral opioid mediated inhibition of inflammatory pain. Pain 106, 297-307.
125. Müller, M. B., Preil, J., Renner, U., Zimmermann, S., Kresse, A. E., Stalla, G. K., Keck, M. E., Holsboer, F., and Wurst, W. (2001). Expression of CRHR 1 and CRHR 2 in mouse pituitary and adrenal gland: implications for HPA system regulation. Endocrinology 142, 4150-4153.
126. Nappi, R. E., and Rivest, S. (1995). Stress-induced genetic expression of a selective corticotropin-releasing factor-receptor subtype within the rat ovaries: an effect dependent on the ovulatory cycle. Biol. Reprod. 53, 1417-1428.
127. Nillni, E. A., and Sevarino, K. A. (1999). The Biology of pro-Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone-Derived Peptides. Endocr. Rev. 20, 599-648.
128. Oikawa, M., Dargan, C., Ny, T., and Hsueh, A. J. (1990). Expression of gonadotropin releasing hormone and prothymosin-messenger ribonucleic acid in the ovary. Endocrinology 127, 2350-2356.
129. Pawlikowski, M., Zerek-Melen, G., and Winczyk, K. (1992). Thyroliberin (TRH) Increases Thymus Cell Proliferation in Rats. Neuropeptides 23, 199-202.
130. Pekary, A. E., Meyera, N. V., Vaillanta, C., and Hershmana, J. M. (1980). Thyrotropinreleasing hormone and a homologous peptide in the male rat reproductive system. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 95, 993-1000.
131. Pekary, A. E., Richkind, M., and Hershman, J. M. (1983b). Thyrotrophin releasing hormone and related peptides in canine tissues. J. Endocrinol. 98, 299-306.
132. Pekary, A. E., Ross, R., de Kernion, J., and Hershman, J. M. (1983a). Human Reproductive Tissues Contain Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH) and TRH-homologous Peptides. J. Androl. 4, 408-414.
133. Peng, C., Fan, N. C., Ligier, M., Vaananen, J., and Leung, P. C. K. (1994). Expression and regulation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and GnRH receptor messenger ribonucleic acids in human granulosa-luteal cells. Endocrinology 135, 1740-1746.
134. Perez Castro, C., Peñalva, R., Páez Pereda, M., Renner, U., Reul, J. M., Stalla, G. K., Holsboer, F., Arzt, E. (1999). Early Activation of Thyrotropin-Releasing-Hormone and Prolactin Plays a Critical Role during a T Cell-Dependent Immune Response. Endocrinology 140, 690-697.
135. Quintanar, J. L. (2011). Neuroimmunomodulation by Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone. Advances in Neuroimmune Biology 1, 125-132.
136. Quintanar, J.L., Salinas, E., and González, R. (2009). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor in spinal cord neurons of embryos and adult rats. Neurosci.Lett. 461, 21-24.
137. Quintanar, J.L., Salinas, E., and Quintanar-Stephano, A. (2011).Gonadotropin-releasing hormone reduces the severity of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a model of multiple sclerosis. Neuropeptides 45, 43-48.
138. Radulovic, M., and Spiess, J. (2001). Immunomodulatory Role of the Corticotropin-Releasing Factor. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsz). 49, 33-38.
139. Radulovic, M., Dautzenberg, F. M., Shydow, S., Radulovic, J., and Spiess, J. (1999): Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor 1 in a mouse spleen: expression after immune stimulation and identification of receptor-bearing cells. J. Immunol., 162, 3013-3021.
140. Raiden, S., Polack, E., Nahmod, V., Labeur, M., Holsboer, F., and Arzt, E. (1995). TRH Receptor on Immune Cells: In vitro and in Vivo Stimulation of Human Lymphocyte and Rat Splenocyte DNA Synthesis by TRH. J. Clin. Immunol. 15, 242-249.
141. Raux-Demay, M. C., and Girard, F. (1985).The physiology of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). Reprod. Nutr. Dev. 25, 931-943.
142. Sapolsky, R., Rivier, C., Yamamoto, G., Plotsky, P., and Vale, W. (1987). Interleukin-I stimulates the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropinreleasing factor. Science 238, 522-524.
143. Sasaki, K., and Norwitz, E. R. (2011). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone/gonadotropinreleasing hormone receptor signaling in the placenta. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 18, 401-408.
144. Satoh, T., Feng, P., Kim, U. J., and Wilber, J. F. (1993). Identification of thyrotropin releasing hormone receptor messenger RNA in the rat central nervous system and eye. Brain. Res. Mol. Brain Res. 19, 175-178.
145. Schaeffer, J. M., Brownstein, M. J., and Axelrod, J. (1977). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone-like material in the rat retina: changes due to environmental lighting. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74, 3579-3581.
146. Scharrer, E., and Scharrer, B. (1940). Secretory cells within the hypothalamus. In: The Hypothalamus. Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease. Hafner Publishing, New York, pp 170-194.
147. Schürmeyer, T. H., Avgerinos, P. C., Gold, P. W., Gallucci, W. T., Tomai, T. P., Cutler, G. B. Jr., Loriaux, D. L., and Chrousos, G. P. (1984). Human corticotropin-releasing factor in man: pharmacokinetic properties and dose-response of plasma adrenocorticotropin and cortisol secretion. J. Clin. Endocrinol. and Metab. 59, 1103-1108.
148. Shambaugh, G., Kubek, M., and Wilber, J. F. (1979). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone activity in the human placenta. J. Clin.Endocrinol. Metab. 48, 483-486.
149. Silverman, A. J., Millar, R. P., King, J. A., Zhuang, X., and Silver, R. (1994). Mast cells with gonadotropin-releasing hormone-like immunoreactivity in the brain of doves. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 91, 3695-3699.
150. Singh, V. K., and Fudenberg, H. H. (1988). Binding of [125I] corticotropin releasing factor to blood immunocytes and its reduction in Alzheimer's disease. Immunol. Lett. 18, 5-8.
151. Singh, V. K., and Leu, S. J. (1990). Enhancing effect of corticotropin-releasing neurohormone on the production of interleukin-1 and interleukin-2. Neurosci. Lett. 120, 151-154.
152. Singh, V. K., Warren, R. P., White, E. D., and Leu, S. J. C. (1990). Corticotropin-releasing factor-induced stimulation of immune functions. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 594, 416-419.
153. Singh, V.K. (1989). Stimulatory effect of corticotropin-releasing neurohormone on human lymphocyte proliferation and interleukin-2 receptor expression. J. Neuroimmunol. 23, 257-262.
154. Slominski, A., Ermak, G., Hwang, J., Chakraborty, A., Mazurkiewicz, J. E., and Mihm, M. (1995). Proopiomelanocortin, corticotrophin-releasing hormone and corticotrophin releasing hormone receptor genes are expressed in human skin. FEBS Lett. 374, 113-116.
155. Song, J. P., Chen, X., and Hu, S. (2013). Corticotropin releasing hormone activates CD14+cells to induce endothelial barrier dysfunction. Cell Biol Int. doi: 10.1002/cbin.10133.
156. Standaert, F. E., Chew, B. P., De Avila, D., and Reeves, J. J. (1992). Presence of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone binding sites in cultured porcine lymphocytes. Biol. Reprod. 46, 997-1000.
157. Stevenson, T. J., Hahn, T. P., MacDougall-Shackleton, S. A., and Ball, G. F. (2012). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone plasticity: a comparative perspective. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 33, 287-300.
158. Strausbaug, H., and Irwin, M. (1992). Central corticotropin releasing hormone reduces cellular immunity. Brain Behav. Immun. 6, 11-17.
159. Sun, Y., Lu, X., and Gershengorn, M. C. (2003). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptors - similarities and differences. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 30, 87-97.
160. Sutherland, J. S., Spyroglou, L., Muirhead, J. L., Heng, T. S., Prieto-Hinojosa, A., Prince, H. M., Chidgey, A. P., Schwarer, A. P., and Boyd, R. L. (2008). Enhanced immune system regeneration in humans following allogeneic or autologous hemopoietic stem cell transplantation by temporary sex steroid blockade. Clin. Cancer Res. 14, 1138-1149.
161. Tan, O., and Bukulmez, O. (2011). Biochemistry, molecular biology and cell biology of gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 23, 238-244.
162. Tanriverdi, F., Gonzalez-Martinez, D., Hu, Y., Kelestimur, F., and Bouloux, P. M. (2005). GnRH-I and GnRH-II have differential modulatory effects on human peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferation and interleukin-2 receptor gamma-chain mRNA expression in healthy males. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 142, 103-110.
163. Tanriverdi, F., Silveira, L. F., MacColl, G. S., Bouloux, P. M. (2003). The hypothalamicpituitary-gonadal axis: immune function and autoimmunity. J. Endocrinol. 176, 293-304.
164. Theoharides, T. C., and Cochrane D. E. (2004). Critical role of mast cells in inflammatory diseases and the effect of acute stress. J. Neuroimmunol. 146, 1-12.
165. Theoharides, T. C., Singh, L. K., Boucher, W., Pang, X., Letourneau, R., Webster, E., and Chrousos, G. (1998). Corticotropin-releasing hormone induces skin mast cell degranulation and increased vascular permeability, a possible explanation for its proinflammatory effects. Endocrinology 139, 403-413.
166. Thompson, M. A., Adelson, M. D., and Kaufman, L. M. (1991). Lupron retards proliferation of ovarian epithelial tumour cells cultured in serum-free medium. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 72, 1036-1041.
167. Umathe, S. N., Dixit, P. V., Wanjari, M. M., and Ullewar, M. P. (2008). Leuprolide - a GnRH agonistprevents restraint stress-induced immunosuppression via sex steroidindependent peripheral mechanism in mice. Int. Immunopharmacol. 8, 71-79.
168. Umesaki, N., Tanaka, T., Miyama, M., Mizuno, K., Kawamura, N., and Ogita, S. (1999). Increased natural killer cell activities in patients treated with gonadotropin releasing hormone agonist. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 48, 66-68.
169. Vaughan, J., Donaldson, C., Bittencourt, J., Perrin, M. H., Lewis, K., Sutton, S., Chan, R., Turnbull, A. V., Lovejoy, D., and Rivier, C. (1995). Urocortin, a mammalian neuropeptide related to fish urotensin I and to corticotropin-releasing factor. Nature 378, 287-292.
170. Walters, K., Wegorzewska, I. N., Chin, Y. P., Parikh, M. G., and Wu, T. J. (2008). Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone I (LHRH-I) and Its Metabolite in Peripheral Tissues. Exp. Biol. Med. 233, 123-130.
171. Wang, J., Whetsell, M. and Klein, J. R. (1997). Local hormone networks and intestinal T cell homeostasis. Science 275, 1937-1939.
172. Wang, W., Zhang, X., Yang, L., Liu, D., Liu, G., and Zhou, J. (2012). Lipopolysaccharide upregulates the expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone via MAP kinase pathway in rat peritoneal macrophages. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 361, 1-7.
173. Webster, E. L., Tracey, D. E., Jutila, M. A., Wolfe, S. A. Jr., and de Souza, E. B. (1990). Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors in mouse spleen: identification of receptorbearing cells as resident macrophages. Endocrinology 127, 440-452.
174. Wilson, A. C., Meethal, S. V., Bowen, R. L., and Atwood, C. S. (2007). Leuprolide acetate: a drug of diverse clinical applications. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 16, 1-13.
175. Winczyk, K., and Pawlikowski, M. (2000). Time of day-dependent effects of thyroliberin and thyrotropin on thymocyte proliferation in rats. Neuroimmunomodulation 7, 89-91.
176. Wong, K. H., and Simon, J. A. In vitro effect of gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist on natural killer cell cytolysis in women with and without endometriosis. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 190, 44-49.
177. Wright, I. M. R. (2003). Corticotropin-releasing hormone causes vasodilation in human skin via mast cell-dependent pathways. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 88, 5427-5432.
178. Wynn, P. C., Harwood, J. P., Catt, K. J., and Aguilera, G. (1985). Regulation of corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) receptors in the rat pituitary gland: effects of adrenalectomy on CRF receptors and corticotroph responses. Endocrinology 116, 1653-1659.
179. Yin, W., and Gore, A. C. (2006). Neuroendocrine control of reproductive aging: roles of GnRH neurons. Reproduction 131, 403-414.