Vitamin D deficiency insufficiency and challenges in developing global vitamin D fortification and supplementation policy in adults

International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research

Volumn 82, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 237-259

  Ben Shoshan, Moshe ^a  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY HEALTH CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Vitamin D deficiency; Vitamin D fortification policy; Vitamin D insufficiency; Vitamin D supplementation policy

Indexed keywords

25 HYDROXYVITAMIN D; CALCITRIOL; COLECALCIFEROL; PARATHYROID HORMONE; PLACEBO; RALOXIFENE; VITAMIN D;

ADULT; ARTICLE; BONE DENSITY; BONE MINERALIZATION; BONE PAIN; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FRACTURE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; LABOR; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDLINE; OSTEOMALACIA; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VITAMIN BLOOD LEVEL; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; FEMALE; HEALTH STATUS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR;

ADULT; DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS; FEMALE; FOOD, FORTIFIED; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; MEDLINE; NUTRITION POLICY; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PREGNANCY; RISK FACTORS; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

MLCS; MLOWN;

EID: 84878888048     PISSN: 03009831     EISSN: 16642821     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1024/0300-9831/a000117     Document Type: Article

References (187)

1. DeLuca, H.F. (2004) Overview of general physiologic features and functions of vitamin D. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 (6 Suppl), 1689S-1696S.
2. Toner, C.D., Davis, C.D. and Milner, J.A. (2010) The vitamin D and cancer conundrum: aiming at a moving target. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 110 (10), 1492-1500.
3. Grant, W.B. (2009) A critical review of Vitamin D and Cancer: A report of the IARC Working Group. Dermatoendocrinol 1 (1), 25-33.
4. Vashi, P.G., Trukova, K., Lammersfeld, C.A., Braun, D.P. and Gupta, D. (2010) Impact of oral vitamin D supplementation on serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in oncology. Nutr. J. 9, 60.
5. Michos, E.D. and Melamed, M.L. (2008) Vitamin D and cardiovascular disease risk. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 11 (1), 7-12.
6. Pittas, A.G., Chung, M., Trikalinos, T., Mitri, J., Brendel, M., Patel, K. et al. (2010) Systematic review: Vitamin D and cardiometabolic outcomes. Ann. Intern. Med. 152 (5), 307-314.
7. Mullins, R.J., Clark, S. and Camargo, C.A., Jr. (2009) Regional variation in epinephrine autoinjector prescriptions in Australia: more evidence for the vitamin D-anaphylaxis hypothesis. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 103 (6), 488-495.
8. Mullins, R.J., Clark, S. and Camargo, Jr. C.A. (2010) Regional variation in infant hypoallergenic formula prescriptions in Australia. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 21(2 Pt2): e413-20.
9. Rudders, S.A., Espinola, J.A. and Camargo, C.A., Jr. (2010) North-south differences in US emergency department visits for acute allergic reactions. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 104 (5), 413-416.
10. Hata, T.R., Kotol, P., Jackson, M., Nguyen, M., Paik, A., Udall, D. et al. (2008) Administration of oral vitamin D induces cathelicidin production in atopic individuals. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 122 (4), 829-831.
11. Peroni, D.G., Piacentini, G.L., Cametti, E., Chinellato, I. and Boner, A.L. (2010) Correlation between serum 25 (OH)-vitamin D levels and severity of atopic dermatitis in children. Br. J. Dermatol. 164 (5): 1078-82.
12. Thorp, W.A., Goldner, W., Meza, J. and Poole, J.A. (2010) Reduced vitamin D levels in adult subjects with chronic urticaria. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 12 6 (2): 413.
13. Unuvar, T. and Buyukgebiz, A. (2010) Nutritional rikkets and vitamin D deficiency in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Rev. 7 (3), 283-291.
14. FAO/WHO expert consultation on human vitamin and mineral requirements. 2002.
15. Looker, A.C., Johnson, C.L., Lacher, D.A., Pfeiffer, C.M., Schleicher, R.L. and Sempos, C.T. (2011) Vitamin D status: United States, 2001-2006. NCHS Data Brief (59), 1-8.
16. Armas, L.A., Hollis, B.W. and Heaney, R.P. (2004) Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89(11),5387-5391.
17. Cranney, A., Horsley, T., O'Donnell, S., Weiler, H., Puil, L., Ooi, D. et al. (2007) Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D in relation to bone health. Evid. Rep. Technol. Assess. (Full Rep) (158): 1-235.
18. Thacher, T.D. and Clarke, B.L. (2011) Vitamin D insufficiency. Mayo Clin. Proc. 86 (1), 50-60.
19. Fraser, D.R. and Kodicek, E. (1970) Unique biosynthesis by kidney of a biological active vitamin D metabolite. Nature 228 (5273), 764-766.
20. Evans RM. The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science 1988; 240 (4854): 889-895.
21. Norman, A.W., Nemere, I., Zhou, L.X., Bishop, J.E.,Lowe, K.E., Maiyar, A.C. et al. (1992) 1,25(OH)2-vitamin D3, a steroid hormone that produces biologic effects via both genomic and nongenomic pathways. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 41 (3-8), 231-240.
22. Gniadecki, R. (1996) Activation of Raf-mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in normal human keratinocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 106 (6), 1212-1217.
23. Slater, S.J., Kelly, M.B., Taddeo, F.J., Larkin, J.D.,Yeager, M.D., McLane, J.A. et al. (1995) Direct activation of protein kinase C by 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. J. Biol. Chem. 270 (12), 6639-6643.
24. Khare, S., Tien, X.Y., Wilson, D., Wali, R.K., Bissonnette, B.M., Scaglione-Sewell, B. et al. (1994) The role of protein kinase-C alpha in the activation of particulate guanylate cyclase by 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in CaCo-2 cells. Endocrinology 135 (1), 277-283.
25. Johansen, C., Kragballe, K., Henningsen, J., Westergaard, M., Kristiansen, K. and Iversen, L. (2003) 1-alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 stimulates activator protein 1 DNA-binding activity by a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Ras/MEK/extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 and c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1-dependent increase in c-Fos, Fra1, and c-Jun expression in human keratinocytes. J. Invest. Dermatol. 120 (4), 561-570.
26. Rigby, W.F., Noelle, R.J., Krause, K. and Fanger, M.W. (1985) The effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on human T lymphocyte activation and proliferation: a cell cycle analysis. J. Immunol. 135 (4), 2279-2286.
27. McKenna, M.J. (1992) Differences in vitamin D status between countries in young adults and the elderly. Am. J. Med. 93 (1), 69-77.
28. Vieth, R., Bischoff-Ferrari, H., Boucher, B.J., Dawson-Hughes, B., Garland, C.F., Heaney, R.P. et al. (2007) The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 85 (3), 649-650.
29. Bischoff-Ferrari, H.A., Giovannucci, E., Willett, W.C., Dietrich, T. and Dawson-Hughes, B. (2006) Estimation of optimal serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for multiple health outcomes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84 (1), 18-28.
30. Vieth, R., Bischoff-Ferrari, H., Boucher, B.J., Dawson-Hughes, B., Garland, C.F., Heaney, R.P. et al. (2007) The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 85 (3), 649-650.
31. Chapuy, M.C., Preziosi, P., Maamer, M., Arnaud, S., Galan, P., Hercberg, S. et al. (1997) Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in an adult normal population. Osteoporos. Int. 7 (5), 439-443.
32. Malabanan, A., Veronikis, I. E. and Holick, M.F. (1998) Redefining vitamin D insufficiency. Lancet 351 (9105), 805-806.
33. Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. (2010) National Academies Press, Washington, D.C,. Ref Type: Online Source
34. Bischoff-Ferrari, H.A., Willett, W.C., Wong, J.B., Stuck, A.E., Staehelin, H.B., Orav, E.J. et al. (2009) Prevention of nonvertebral fractures with oral vitamin D and dose dependency: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch. Intern. Med. 169 (6),551-561.
35. Bischoff-Ferrari, H.A., Dawson-Hughes, B., Staehelin, H.B., Orav, J.E., Stuck, A.E., Theiler, R. et al. (2009) Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 339, b3692.
36. Dawson-Hughes, B., Mithal, A., Bonjour, J.P., Boonen, S., Burckhardt, P., Fuleihan, G.E. et al. (2010) IOF position statement: vitamin D recommendations for older adults. Osteoporos. Int. 21 (7), 1151-1154.
37. Hanley, D.A., Cranney, A., Jones, G., Whiting, S.J., Leslie, W.D., Cole, D.E. et al. (2010) Vitamin D in adult health and disease: a review and guideline statement from Osteoporosis Canada. CMAJ 182 (12),E610-E618.
38. Adams, J.S. and Hewison, M. (2010) Update in vitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 95 (2), 471-478.
39. Hollis, B.W. (2005) Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels indicative of vitamin D sufficiency: implications for establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. J. Nutr. 135 (2), 317-322.
40. Dawson-Hughes, B., Heaney, R.P., Holick, M.F., Lips, P., Meunier, P.J. and Vieth, R. (2005) Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos. Int. 16 (7),713-716.
41. Heaney, R.P. (2008) Vitamin D: criteria for safety and efficacy. Nutr. Rev. 66 (10 Suppl 2), S178-S181.
42. Okazaki, R., Sugimoto, T., Kaji, H., Fujii, Y., Shiraki, M., Inoue, D. et al. (2011) Vitamin D insufficiency defined by serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone before and after oral vitamin D load in Japanese subjects. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 29 (1), 103-110.
43. Basha, B., Rao, D.S., Han, Z.H. and Parfitt, A.M. (2000) Osteomalacia due to vitamin D depletion: a neglected consequence of intestinal malabsorption. Am. J. Med. 108 (4): 296-300.
44. McKenna, M.J., Freaney, R., Casey, O.M., Towers, R.P. and Muldowney, F.P. (1983) Osteomalacia and osteoporosis: evaluation of a diagnostic index. J Clin Pathol 36 (3), 245-252.
45. Bhan, A., Rao, A.D. and Rao, D.S. (2010) Osteomalacia as a result of vitamin D deficiency. Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. North Am. 39 (2), 321-31, Table.
46. Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. (1994) Report of a WHO Study Group. World Health Organ. Tech. Rep. Ser. 843, 1-129.
47. Wilkins, C.H. (2007) Osteoporosis screening and risk management. Clin. Interv. Aging 2 (3), 389-394.
48. Keen, R.W. Burden of osteoporosis and fractures. (2003) Curr. Osteoporos. Rep. 1 (2), 66-70.
49. Holroyd, C., Cooper, C. and Dennison, E. (2008) Epidemiology of osteoporosis. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 22 (5), 671-685.
50. Berger, C., Langsetmo, L., Joseph, L., Hanley, D.A., Davison, K.S., Josse, R. et al. (2008) Change in bone mineral density as a function of age in women and men and association with the use of antiresorptive agents. CMAJ 178 (13), 1660-1668.
51. Prince, R.L. Diet and the prevention of osteoporotic fractures. (1997) N. Engl. J. Med. 337 (10), 701-702.
52. Cooper, M.S. (2008) Our approach to osteoporosis screening and treatment needs to change. CMAJ 178 (13), 1683-1684.
53. Lips, P., Duong, T., Oleksik, A., Black, D., Cummings, S., Cox, D. et al. (2001) A global study of vitamin D status and parathyroid function in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: baseline data from the multiple outcomes of raloxifene evaluation clinical trial. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 86 (3), 1212-1221.
54. Islam, M.Z., Shamim, A.A., Viljakainen, H.T., Akhtaruzzaman, M., Jehan, A.H., Khan, H.U. et al. (2010) Effect of vitamin D, calcium and multiple micronutrient supplementation on vitamin D and bone status in Bangladeshi premenopausal garment factory workers with hypovitaminosis D: a double-blinded, randomised, placebo-controlled 1-year intervention. Br. J. Nutr. 104 (2), 241-247.
55. Valimaki, V.V., Alfthan, H., Lehmuskallio, E., Loyttyniemi, E., Sahi, T., Stenman, U.H. et al. (2004) Vitamin D status as a determinant of peak bone mass in young Finnish men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89 (1), 76-80.
56. Ruohola, J.P., Laaksi, I., Ylikomi, T., Haataja, R., Mattila, V.M., Sahi, T. et al. (2006) Association between serum 25(OH)D concentrations and bone stress fractures in Finnish young men. J. Bone Miner. Res. 21 (9), 1483-1488.
57. Ravenell, R.L., Kamen, D.L., Spence, J.D., Hollis, B.W., Fleury, T.J., Janech, M.G. et al. (2012) Premature Atherosclerosis Is Associated With Hypovitaminosis D and Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor Non-use in Lupus Patients. Am. J. Med. Sci. (Epub ahead of print)
58. Frieri, M. and Valluri, A. (2011) Vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for allergic disorders and immune mechanisms. Allergy Asthma Proc. 32 (6), 438-444.
59. Fletcher, J.M., Basdeo, S.A., Allen, A.C. and Dunne, P.J. (2012) Therapeutic use of vitamin D and its analogues in autoimmunity. Recent Pat. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Discov. 6 (1), 22-34.
60. Ananthakrishnan, A.N., Khalili, H., Higuchi, L.M., Bao, Y., Korzenik, J.R., Giovannucci, E.S. et al. (2011) Higher Predicted Vitamin D Status Is Associated With Reduced Risk of Crohn's Disease. Gastroenterology .142 (3): 482-9.
61. Langlois, K., Greene-Finestone, L., Little, J., Hidiroglou, N. and Whiting, S. (2010) Vitamin D status of Canadians as measured in the 2007 to 2009 Canadian Health Measures Survey. Health Rep. 21 (1), 47-55.
62. Weiler, H.A., Leslie, W.D., Krahn, J., Steiman, P.W. and Metge, C.J. (2007) Canadian Aboriginal women have a higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency than non-Aboriginal women despite similar dietary vitamin D intakes. J. Nutr. 137 (2), 461-465.
63. Gagnon, C., Baillargeon, J.P., Desmarais, G. and Fink, G.D. (2010) Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D insufficiency in women of reproductive age living in northern latitude. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 163 (5), 819-824.
64. Looker, A.C., Pfeiffer, C.M., Lacher, D.A., Schleicher, R.L., Picciano, M.F. and Yetley, E.A. (2008) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of the US population: 1988-1994 compared with 2000-2004. Am. J.Clin. Nutr. 88(6),1519-1527.
65. Yetley, E.A. (2008) Assessing the vitamin D status of the US population. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 88 (2),558S-564S.
66. Ginde, A.A., Liu, M.C. and Camargo, C.A., Jr. (2009) Demographic differences and trends of vitamin D insufficiency in the US population, 1988-2004. Arch.Intern. Med. 169 (6), 626-632.
67. Looker, A.C., Dawson-Hughes, B., Calvo, M.S., Gunter, E.W. and Sahyoun, N.R. (2002) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of adolescents and adults in two seasonal subpopulations from NHANES III. Bone 30 (5), 771-777.
68. Lee, J.M., Smith J.R., Philipp B.L., Chen T.C., Mathieu J., Holick M.F. (2007) Vitamin D deficiency in a healthy group of mothers and newborn infants. Clin. Pediatr. (Phila) 46 (1), 42-44.
69. Ginde, A.A., Sullivan, A.F., Mansbach, J.M. and Camargo, C.A., Jr. (2010) Vitamin D insufficiency in pregnant and nonpregnant women of childbearing age in the United States. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 202 (5), 436-438.
70. Nesby-O'Dell, S., Scanlon, K.S., Cogswell, M.E., Gillespie, C., Hollis, B.W., Looker, A.C. et al. (2002) Hypovitaminosis D prevalence and determinants among African American and white women of reproductive age: third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76 (1), 187-192.
71. Dong, Y., Pollock, N., Stallmann-Jorgensen, I.S., Gutin, B., Lan, L., Chen, T.C. et al. (2010) Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in adolescents: race, season, adiposity, physical activity, and fitness. Pediatrics 125 (6), 1104-1111.
72. Merewood, A., Mehta, S.D., Grossman, X., Chen, T.C., Mathieu, J.S., Holick, M.F. et al. (2010) Widespread vitamin D deficiency in urban Massachusetts newborns and their mothers. Pediatrics 125 (4), 640-647.
73. Johnson, D.D., Wagner, C.L., Hulsey, T.C., McNeil, R.B., Ebeling, M. and Hollis, B.W. (2011) Vitamin D deficiency and Insufficiency is Common during Pregnancy. Am. J. Perinatol. 28 (1), 7-12.
74. Bodnar, L.M., Simhan, H.N., Powers, R.W., Frank, M.P., Cooperstein, E. and Roberts, J.M. (2007) High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in black and white pregnant women residing in the northern United States and their neonates. J. Nutr. 137 (2),447-452.
75. Gonzalez, G., Alvarado, J.N., Rojas, A., Navarrete, C., Velasquez, C.G. and Arteaga, E. (2007) High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in Chilean healthy postmenopausal women with normal sun exposure: additional evidence for a worldwide concern. Menopause 14 (3 Pt 1), 455-461.
76. Fradinger, E.E. and Zanchetta, J.R. (1999) [Vitamin D status in women living in Buenos Aires]. Medicina (B Aires) 59 (5 Pt 1), 449-452.
77. Oliveri MB, Mautalen CA, Alonso A, Velazquez H, Trouchot HA, Porto R et al. [Nutritional status of vitamin D in mothers and neonates of Ushuaia and Buenos Aires]. Medicina (B Aires) 1993; 53 (4): 315-320.
78. van der Wielen, R.P., Lowik, M.R., van den, B.H., de Groot, L.C., Haller, J., Moreiras, O. et al. (1995) Serum vitamin D concentrations among elderly people in Europe. Lancet 346 (8969), 207-210.
79. Hirani, V., Tull, K., Ali, A. and Mindell, J. (2010) Urgent action needed to improve vitamin D status among older people in England! Age Ageing 39 (1), 62-68.
80. Burleigh, E. and Potter, J. (2006) Vitamin D deficiency in outpatients:-a Scottish perspective. Scott. Med. J. 51 (2), 27-31.
81. O'Sullivan, M., Nic, S.T., Cox, G., Healy, M. and O'Morain, C. (2008) High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in healthy Irish adults. Ir. J. Med. Sci. 177 (2), 131-134.
82. Moreno-Reyes, R., Carpentier, Y.A., Boelaert, M., El, M.K., Dufourny, G., Bazelmans, C. et al. (2009) Vitamin D deficiency and hyperparathyroidism in relation to ethnicity: a cross-sectional survey in healthy adults. Eur. J. Nutr. 48 (1), 31-37.
83. Nicolaidou, P., Hatzistamatiou, Z., Papadopoulou, A., Kaleyias, J., Floropoulou, E., Lagona, E. et al. (2006) Low vitamin D status in mother-newborn pairs in Greece. Calcif. Tissue Int. 78 (6), 337-342.
84. Carnevale, V., Modoni, S., Pileri, M., Di, G.A., Chiodini, I., Minisola, S. et al. (2001) Longitudinal evaluation of vitamin D status in healthy subjects from southern Italy: seasonal and gender differences. Osteoporos. Int. 12 (12), 1026-1030.
85. Burnand, B., Sloutskis, D., Gianoli, F., Cornuz, J., Rikkenbach, M., Paccaud, F. et al. (1992) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D: distribution and determinants in the Swiss population. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 56 (3), 537-542.
86. Brustad, M., Sandanger, T., Aksnes, L. and Lund, E. (2004) Vitamin D status in a rural population of northern Norway with high fish liver consumption. Public Health Nutr. 7 (6), 783-789.
87. Lamberg-Allardt, C.J., Outila, T.A., Karkkainen, M.U., Rita, H.J. and Valsta, L.M. (2001) Vitamin D deficiency and bone health in healthy adults in Finland: could this be a concern in other parts of Europe? J. Bone Miner. Res. 16 (11), 2066-2073.
88. Hypponen, E. and Power, C. (2007) Hypovitaminosis D in British adults at age 45 y: nationwide cohort study of dietary and lifestyle predictors. Am. J. Clin.Nutr. 85 (3), 860-868.
89. Holmes, V.A., Barnes, M.S., Alexander, H.D., McFaul, P. and Wallace, J.M. (2009) Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency in pregnant women: a longitudinal study. Br. J. Nutr. 102 (6), 876-881.
90. Gonzalez-Molero, I., Morcillo, S., Valdes, S., PerezValero, V., Botas, P., Delgado, E. et al. (2011) Vitamin D deficiency in Spain: a population-based cohort study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 65 (3), 321-328.
91. Mata-Granados, J.M., Luque de Castro, M.D. and Quesada Gomez, J.M. (2008) Inappropriate serum levels of retinol, alpha-tocopherol, 25 hydroxyvitamin D3 and 24,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 levels in healthy Spanish adults: simultaneous assessment by HPLC. Clin. Biochem. 41 (9), 676-680.
92. Frost, M., Abrahamsen, B., Nielsen, T.L., Hagen, C., Andersen, M. and Brixen, K. (2010) Vitamin D status and PTH in young men: a cross-sectional study on associations with bone mineral density, body composition and glucose metabolism. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf) 73 (5), 573-580.
93. Brot, C., Vestergaard, P., Kolthoff, N., Gram, J., Hermann, A.P. and Sorensen, O.H. (2001) Vitamin D status and its adequacy in healthy Danish perimenopausal women: relationships to dietary intake, sun exposure and serum parathyroid hormone. Br. J. Nutr. 86 Suppl 1, S97-103.
94. Jorde, R., Sneve, M., Hutchinson, M., Emaus, N., Figenschau, Y. and Grimnes, G. Tracking of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels during 14 years in a populationbased study and during 12 months in an intervention study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2010; 171 (8), 903-908.
95. Hekimsoy, Z., Dinc, G., Kafesciler, S., Onur, E., Guvenc, Y., Pala, T. et al. (2010) Vitamin D status among adults in the Aegean region of Turkey. BMC Public Health 10, 782.
96. Erkal, M.Z., Wilde, J., Bilgin, Y., Akinci, A., Demir, E., Bodeker, R.H. et al. (2006) High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency, secondary hyperparathyroidism and generalized bone pain in Turkish immigrants in Germany: identification of risk factors. Osteoporos. Int. 17 (8), 1133-1140.
97. Mukamel, M.N., Weisman, Y., Somech, R., Eisenberg, Z., Landman, J., Shapira, I. et al. (2001) Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency in Orthodox and non-Orthodox Jewish mothers in Israel. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 3 (6): 419-421.
98. Mishal, A.A. (2001) Effects of different dress styles on vitamin D levels in healthy young Jordanian women. Osteoporos. Int. 12 (11), 931-935.
99. Allali, F., El Aichaoui, S., Saoud, B., Maaroufi, H., Abouqal, R. and Hajjaj-Hassouni, N. (2006) The impact of clothing style on bone mineral density among post menopausal women in Morocco: a case-control study. BMC Public Health 6, 135.
100. Gannage-Yared, M.H., Chemali, R., Yaacoub, N. and Halaby, G. (2000) Hypovitaminosis D in a sunny country: relation to lifestyle and bone markers. J Bone Miner. Res. 15 (9), 1856-1862.
101. Meddeb, N., Sahli, H., Chahed, M., Abdelmoula, J., Feki, M., Salah, H. et al. (2005) Vitamin D deficiency in Tunisia. Osteoporos. Int. 16 (2), 180-183.
102. Allali, F., El Aichaoui, S., Khazani, H., Benyahia, B., Saoud, B., El Kabbaj, S. et al. (2009) High prevalence of hypovitaminosis D in Morocco: relationship to lifestyle, physical performance, bone markers, and bone mineral density. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 38 (6), 444-451.
103. el Sonbaty, M.R. and Abdul-Ghaffar, N.U. (1996) Vitamin D deficiency in veiled Kuwaiti women. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 50 (5), 315-318.
104. Guzel, R., Kozanoglu, E., Guler-Uysal, F., Soyupak, S. and Sarpel, T. (2001) Vitamin D status and bone mineral density of veiled and unveiled Turkish women. J. Womens Health Gend. Based Med. 10 (8), 765-770.
105. Batieha, A., Khader, Y., Jaddou, H., Hyassat, D., Batieha, Z., Khateeb, M. et al. (2011) Vitamin D Status in Jordan: Dress Style and Gender Discrepancies. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 58 (1), 10-18.
106. Tsur, A., Metzger, M. and Dresner-Pollak, R. (2010) Effect of different dress style on vitamin D level in healthy young Orthodox and ultra-Orthodox students in Israel. Osteoporos. Int. 22 (11): 2895-8.
107. Oren, Y., Shapira, Y., Agmon-Levin, N., Kivity, S., Zafrir, Y., Altman, A. et al. (2010) Vitamin D insufficiency in a sunny environment: a demographic and seasonal analysis. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 12 (12), 751-756.
108. Glew, R.H., Crossey, M.J., Polanams, J., Okolie, H.I. and VanderJagt, D.J. (2010) Vitamin D status of seminomadic Fulani men and women. J. Natl. Med. Assoc. 102 (6), 485-490.
109. Ainy, E., Ghazi, A.A. and Azizi, F. (2006) Changes in calcium, 25(OH) vitamin D3 and other biochemical factors during pregnancy. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 29 (4), 303-307.
110. Al-Sultan, A.I., Amin, T.T., Abou-Seif, M.A. and Al Naboli, M.R. (2011) Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone levels and insulin sensitivity among obese young adult Saudis. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 15 (2), 135-147.
111. Sadat-Ali, M., Al-Elq, A., Al-Turki, H., Al-Mulhim, F. and Al-Ali, A. (2009) Vitamin D levels in healthy men in eastern Saudi Arabia. Ann. Saudi Med. 29 (5), 378-382.
112. Narchi, H., Kochiyil, J., Zayed, R., Abdulrazzak, W. and Agarwal, M. (2010) Maternal vitamin D status throughout and after pregnancy. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 30 (2), 137-142.
113. Molla, A.M., Al, B.M., Hammoud, M.S., Molla, A.M., Shukkur, M., Thalib, L. et al. (2005) Vitamin D status of mothers and their neonates in Kuwait. Pediatr. Int. 47 (6), 649-652.
114. Bassir, M., Laborie, S., Lapillonne, A., Claris, O., Chappuis, M.C. and Salle, B.L. (2001) Vitamin D deficiency in Iranian mothers and their neonates: a pilot study. Acta Paediatr. 90 (5), 577-579.
115. Kazemi, A., Sharifi, F., Jafari, N. and Mousavinasab, N. (2009) High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among pregnant women and their newborns in an Iranian population. J. Womens Health (Larchmt) 18 (6), 835-839.
116. Salek, M., Hashemipour, M., Aminorroaya, A., Gheiratmand, A., Kelishadi, R., Ardestani, P.M. et al. (2008) Vitamin D deficiency among pregnant women and their newborns in Isfahan, Iran. Exp. Clin. Endocrinol. Diabetes 116 (6), 352-356.
117. Hashemipour, S., Larijani, B., Adibi, H., Javadi, E., Sedaghat, M., Pajouhi, M. et al. (2004) Vitamin D deficiency and causative factors in the population of Tehran. BMC Public Health 4,38.
118. Babu, U.S. and Calvo, M.S. (2010) Modern India and the vitamin D dilemma: evidence for the need of a national food fortification program. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 54 (8), 1134-1147.
119. Harinarayan, C.V., Ramalakshmi, T. and Venkataprasad, U. (2004) High prevalence of low dietary calcium and low vitamin D status in healthy south Indians. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 13 (4), 359-364.
120. Mansoor, S., Habib, A., Ghani, F., Fatmi, Z., Badruddin, S., Mansoor, S. et al. (2010) Prevalence and significance of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency among apparently healthy adults. Clin. Biochem. 43 (18), 1431-1435.
121. Farrant, H.J., Krishnaveni, G.V., Hill, J.C., Boucher, B.J., Fisher, D.J., Noonan, K. et al. (2009) Vitamin D insufficiency is common in Indian mothers but is not associated with gestational diabetes or variation in newborn size. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 63 (5), 646-652.
122. Harinarayan, C.V. (2005) Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in postmenopausal south Indian women. Osteoporos. Int. 16 (4), 397-402.
123. Arya, V., Bhambri, R., Godbole, M.M. and Mithal, A. (2004) Vitamin D status and its relationship with bone mineral density in healthy Asian Indians. Osteoporos. Int. 15 (1), 56-61.
124. Vupputuri, M.R., Goswami, R., Gupta, N., Ray, D., Tandon, N. and Kumar, N. (2006) Prevalence and functional significance of 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency and vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms in Asian Indians. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83 (6), 1411-1419.
125. Zargar, A.H., Ahmad, S., Masoodi, S.R., Wani, A.I., Bashir, M.I., Laway, B.A. et al. (2007) Vitamin D status in apparently healthy adults in Kashmir Valley of Indian subcontinent. Postgrad. Med. J. 83 (985),713-716.
126. Sachan, A., Gupta, R., Das, V., Agarwal, A., Awasthi, P.K. and Bhatia, V. (2005) High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among pregnant women and their newborns in northern India. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81 (5), 1060-1064.
127. Kadam, N., Chiplonkar, S., Khadilkar, A., Divate, U. and Khadilkar, V. (2010) Low bone mass in urban Indian women above 40 years of age: prevalence and risk factors. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 26 (12), 909-917.
128. Atiq, M., Suria, A., Nizami, S.Q. and Ahmed, I. (1998) Maternal vitamin-D deficiency in Pakistan. Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 77 (10), 970-973.
129. Krishnaveni, G.V., Veena, S.R., Winder, N.R., Hill, J.C., Noonan, K., Boucher, B.J. et al. (2011) Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and body composition and cardiovascular risk markers in Indian children: the Mysore Parthenon Study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 93 (3), 628-635.
130. Karim, S.A., Nusrat, U. and Aziz, S. (2011) Vitamin D deficiency in pregnant women and their newborns as seen at a tertiary-care center in Karachi, Pakistan. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 112 (1), 59-62.
131. Green, T.J., Skeaff, C.M., Rockell, J.E., Venn, B.J., Lambert, A., Todd, J. et al. (2008) Vitamin D status and its association with parathyroid hormone concentrations in women of child-bearing age living in Jakarta and Kuala Lumpur. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 62 (3),373-378.
132. Nakamura, K., Nashimoto, M., Matsuyama, S. and Yamamoto, M. (2001) Low serum concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in young adult Japanese women: a cross sectional study. Nutrition 17 (11-12), 921-925.
133. Ono, Y., Suzuki, A., Kotake, M., Zhang, X., Nishiwaki-Yasuda, K., Ishiwata, Y. et al. (2005) Seasonal changes of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and intact parathyroid hormone levels in a normal Japanese population. J. Bone Miner. Metab. 23 (2), 147-151.
134. Heere, C., Skeaff, C.M., Waqatakirewa, L., Vatucawaqa, P., Khan, A.N. and Green, T.J. (2010) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration of Indigenous-Fijian and Fijian-Indian women. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 19 (1): 43-48.
135. Lu, L., Yu, Z., Pan, A., Hu, F.B., Franco, O.H., Li, H. et al. (2009) Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and metabolic syndrome among middle-aged and elderly Chinese individuals. Diabetes Care 32 (7), 1278-1283.
136. Wat, W.Z., Leung, J.Y., Tam, S. and Kung, A.W. (2007) Prevalence and impact of vitamin D insufficiency in southern Chinese adults. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 51 (1), 59-64.
137. Yan, L., Prentice, A., Zhang, H., Wang, X., Stirling, D.M. and Golden, M.M. (2000) Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone concentrations in Chinese women and men from north-east of the People's Republic of China. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54 (1), 68-72.
138. Woo, J., Lam, C.W., Leung, J., Lau, W.Y., Lau, E., Ling, X. et al. (2008) Very high rates of vitamin D insufficiency in women of child-bearing age living in Beijing and Hong Kong. Br. J. Nutr. 99 (6), 1330-1334.
139. van der Mei, I.A., Ponsonby, A.L., Engelsen, O., Pasco, J.A., McGrath, J.J., Eyles, D.W. et al. (2007) The high prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency across Australian populations is only partly explained by season and latitude. Environ. Health Perspect. 115 (8), 1132-1139.
140. Rockell, J.E., Skeaff, C.M., Williams, S.M. and Green, T.J. (2006) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations of New Zealanders aged 15 years and older. Osteoporos. Int. 17 (9), 1382-1389.
141. Judkins, A. and Eagleton, C. (2006) Vitamin D deficiency in pregnant New Zealand women. N.Z. Med. J. 119 (1241), U2144.
142. Vanlint, S.J., Morris, H.A., Newbury, J.W. and Crokkett, A.J. (2011) Vitamin D insufficiency in Aboriginal Australians. Med. J. Aust. 194 (3), 131-134.
143. Teale, G.R. and Cunningham, C.E. (2010) Vitamin D deficiency is common among pregnant women in rural Victoria. Aust. N.Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 50 (3), 259-261.
144. Grover, S.R. and Morley, R. (2001) Vitamin D deficiency in veiled or dark-skinned pregnant women. Med. J. Aust. 175 (5), 251-252.
145. Mytton, J., Frater, A.P., Oakley, G., Murphy, E., Barber, M.J. and Jahfar, S. (2007) Vitamin D deficiency in multicultural primary care: a case series of 299 patients. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 57 (540), 577-579.
146. Reed, S.D., Laya, M.B., Melville, J., Ismail, S.Y., Mitchell, C.M. and Ackerman, D.R. (2007) Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency and clinical associations among veiled East African women in Washington State. J. Womens Health (Larchmt) 16 (2), 206-213.
147. Madar, A.A., Stene, L.C. and Meyer, H.E. (2009) Vitamin D status among immigrant mothers from Pakistan, Turkey and Somalia and their infants attending child health clinics in Norway. Br. J. Nutr. 101 (7), 1052-1058.
148. Meyer, H.E., Holvik, K., Lofthus, C.M. and Tennakoon, S.U. (2008) Vitamin D status in Sri Lankans living in Sri Lanka and Norway. Br. J. Nutr. 99 (5), 941-944.
149. Holvik, K., Meyer, H.E., Haug, E. and Brunvand, L. (2005) Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D deficiency in five immigrant groups living in Oslo, Norway: the Oslo Immigrant Health Study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 59 (1), 57-63.
150. Mithal, A., Wahl, D.A., Bonjour, J.P., Burckhardt, P., Dawson-Hughes, B., Eisman, J.A. et al. (2009) Global vitamin D status and determinants of hypovitaminosis D. Osteoporos. Int. 20 (11), 1807-1820.
151. Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients. (2000) (Dary, O. and Hurrell, R., eds.) Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization. Ref Type: Online Source
152. Calvo, M.S. and Whiting, S.J. (2006) Public health strategies to overcome barriers to optimal vitamin D status in populations with special needs. J. Nutr. 136 (4), 1135-1139.
153. Vitamin D and Calcium: Updated Dietary Reference Intakes. (2010) http://www hc-sc gc ca/fn-an/ nutrition/vitamin/vita-d-eng php#t4 [Available from: URL:http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/vitamin/vita-d-eng.php#t4
154. Calvo, M.S., Whiting, S.J. and Barton, C.N. (2004) Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: current status and data needs. Am. J. Clin.Nutr. 80 (6 Suppl), 1710S-1716S.
155. Heaney, R.P. Barriers to optimizing vitamin D3 intake for the elderly. (2006) J. Nutr. 136 (4), 1123-1125.
156. Lamberg-Allardt, C. (2006) Vitamin D in foods and as supplements. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 92 (1), 33-38.
157. Addition of Vitamins and Minerals to Foods, 2005. http://www hc-sc gc ca/fn-an/alt_formats/hpfb-dgpsa/pdf/nutrition/foritfication_final_doc-eng pdf [2011]
158. DRIs for Calcium and Vitamin D. http://www iomedu/Reports/2010/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Calcium-and-Vitamin-D/DRI-Values aspx [2010]
159. Pietinen, P., Mannisto, S., Valsta, L.M. and Sarlio-Lahteenkorva, S. Nutrition policy in Finland. (2010) Public Health Nutr. 13 (6 A), 901-906.
160. Prophylaxis of vitamin D deficiency-Polish Recommendations 2009. (2010) Endokrynol. Pol. 61 (2), 228-232.
161. Green, T.J., Skeaff, C.M. and Rockell, J.E. (2010) Milk fortified with the current adequate intake for vitamin D (5 microg) increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D compared to control milk but is not sufficient to prevent a seasonal decline in young women. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 19 (2), 195-199.
162. Pearce, S.H. and Cheetham, T.D. (2010) Diagnosis and management of vitamin D deficiency. BMJ 340,b5664.
163. Ashwell, M., Stone, E.M., Stolte, H., Cashman, K.D., Macdonald, H., Lanham-New, S. et al. (2010) UK Food Standards Agency Workshop Report: an investigation of the relative contributions of diet and sunlight to vitamin D status. Br. J. Nutr. 104 (4),603-611.
164. Sanders, K.M., Nowson, C.A., Kotowicz, M.A., Briffa, K., Devine, A. and Reid, I.R. (2009) Calcium and bone health: position statement for the Australian and New Zealand Bone and Mineral Society, Osteoporosis Australia and the Endocrine Society of Australia. Med. J. Aust. 190 (6), 316-320.
165. Tylavsky, F.A., Cheng, S., Lyytikainen, A., Viljakainen, H. and Lamberg-Allardt, C. (2006) Strategies to improve vitamin D status in northern European children: exploring the merits of vitamin D fortification and supplementation. J. Nutr. 136 (4), 1130-1134.
166. Calvo, M.S., Whiting, S.J. and Barton, C.N. (2005) Vitamin D intake: a global perspective of current status. J. Nutr. 135 (2), 310-316.
167. Abrams, S.A. and Atkinson, S.A. (2003) Calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and vitamin D fortification of complementary foods. J. Nutr. 133 (9), 2994S-2999S.
168. Chan, S.P., Chen, J.F., Chu, L.W., Van, D.P., Hosking, D., Ip, T.P. et al. (2009) Final Declaration of the Asian Metaforum on the Role of Vitamin D and the Management of Osteoporosis. Public Health Nutr. 12 (4), 578-580.
169. Maalouf, G., Gannage-Yared, M.H., Ezzedine, J., Larijani, B., Badawi, S., Rached, A. et al. (2007) Middle East and North Africa consensus on osteoporosis. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 7 (2), 131-143.
170. Hanson, A.L. and Metzger, L.E. (2010) Evaluation of increased vitamin D fortification in high-temperature, short-time-processed 2 % milk, UHT-processed 2 % fat chocolate milk, and low-fat strawberry yogurt. J. Dairy Sci. 93 (2), 801-807.
171. Natri, A.M., Salo, P., Vikstedt, T., Palssa, A., Huttunen, M., Karkkainen, M.U. et al. (2006) Bread fortified with cholecalciferol increases the serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in women as effectively as a cholecalciferol supplement. J. Nutr. 136 (1), 123-127.
172. Tangpricha, V., Koutkia, P., Rieke, S.M., Chen, T.C., Perez, A.A. and Holick, M.F. (2003) Fortification of orange juice with vitamin D: a novel approach for enhancing vitamin D nutritional health. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77 (6), 1478-1483.
173. Vieth, R. (1999) Vitamin D supplementation, 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and safety. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69 (5), 842-856.
174. Aloia, J.F., Patel, M., Dimaano, R., Li-Ng, M., Talwar, S.A., Mikhail, M. et al. (2008) Vitamin D intake to attain a desired serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87 (6), 1952-1958.
175. Carnes, J., Quinn, S., Nelson, M., Jones, G. and Winzenberg, T. (2011) Intermittent high-dose vitamin D corrects vitamin D deficiency in adolescents: a pilot study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 66 (4): 530-2.
176. Kuller, L.H. (1999) Circular epidemiology. Am. J. Epidemiol. 150 (9), 897-903.
177. Whiting, S.J. and Calvo, M.S. (2006) Overview of the proceedings from Experimental Biology 2005 symposium: Optimizing Vitamin D Intake for Populations with Special Needs: Barriers to Effective Food Fortification and Supplementation. J. Nutr. 136 (4), 1114-1116.
178. Norman, A.W., Bouillon, R., Whiting, S.J., Vieth, R. and Lips, P. (2007) 13th Workshop consensus for vitamin D nutritional guidelines. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 103 (3-5), 204-205.
179. Hirvonen, T., Sinkko, H., Valsta, L., Hannila, M.L. and Pietinen, P. (2007) Development of a model for optimal food fortification: vitamin D among adults in Finland. Eur. J. Nutr. 46 (5), 264-270.
180. Saadi, H.F., Dawodu, A., Afandi, B.O., Zayed, R., Benedict, S. and Nagelkerke, N. (2007) Efficacy of daily and monthly high-dose calciferol in vitamin D deficient nulliparous and lactating women. Am. J.Clin. Nutr. 85 (6), 1565-1571.
181. Hollis, B.W. and Wagner, C.L. (2004) Vitamin D requirements during lactation: high-dose maternal supplementation as therapy to prevent hypovitaminosis D for both the mother and the nursing infant. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80(6 Suppl), 1752S-1758S.
182. Resch, H., Walliser, J., Phillips, S., Wehren, L.E. and Sen, S.S. (2007) Physician and patient perceptions on the use of vitamin D and calcium in osteoporosis treatment: a European and Latin American perspective. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 23 (6), 1227-1237.
183. Johnson, M.A. and Kimlin, M.G. (2006) Vitamin D, aging, and the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Nutr. Rev. 64 (9), 410-421.
184. Biancuzzo, R.M., Young, A., Bibuld, D., Cai, M.H., Winter, M.R., Klein, E.K. et al. (2010) Fortification of orange juice with vitamin D(2) or vitamin D(3) is as effective as an oral supplement in maintaining vitamin D status in adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91(6), 1621-1626.
185. Hintzpeter B., Mensink G.B., Thierfelder W., Muller M.J., Scheidt-Nave C. (2008) Vitamin D status and health correlates among German adults. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 62(9), 1079-1089.
186. Henriksen C., Brunvand L., Stoltenberg C., Trygg K., Haug E., Pedersen J.I. (1995) Diet and vitamin D status among pregnant Pakistani women in Oslo. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 49 (3), 211-218.
187. Skull S. A., Ngeow J. Y., Biggs B. A., Street A., Ebeling P. R. (2003) Vitamin D deficiency is common and unrecognized among recently arrived adult immigrants from The Horn of Africa. Intern. Med. J. 33 (1-2), 47-51.