The experience of thinking: Metacognitive ease, fluency, and context

Social Metacognition

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 179-198

  Sanna, Lawrence J ^a   Lundberg, Kristjen B ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84878803727     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203865989     Document Type: Chapter

References (85)

1. Aarts, H., & Dijksterhuis, A. (1999). How often did I do it? Experienced ease of retrieval and frequency estimates of past behavior. Acta Psychologica, 103, 77–89.
2. Alter, A. L., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2006). Predicting short-term stock fluctuations by using processing fluency. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 103, 9369–9372.
3. Alter, A. L., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2009). Uniting the tribes of fluency to form a metacog-nitive nation. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 13, 219–235.
4. Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., Epley, N., & Eyre, R. N. (2007). Overcoming intu-ition: Metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 569–576.
5. Begg, J. M., Anas, A., & Farinacci, S. (1992). Dissociation of processes in belief: Source recollection, statement familiarity, and the illusion of truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 121, 446–458.
6. Bornstein, R. F. (1989). Exposure and affect: Overview and meta-analysis of research 1968– 1987. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 265–289.
7. Bornstein, R. F., & D’Agostino, P. R. (1994). The attribution and discounting of percep-tual fluency: Preliminary tests of a perceptual fluency/attributional model of the mere exposure effect. Social Cognition, 12, 103–128.
8. Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Tormala, Z. (2006). The malleable meaning of subjective ease. Psychological Science, 17, 200–206.
9. Broemer, P. (2001). Ease of recall moderates the impact of relationship-related goals on judgments of interpersonal closeness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 261–266.
10. Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1989). Effects of message repetition on argument process-ing, recall, and persuasion. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 10, 3–12.
11. Christensen-Szalanski, J. J. J., & Willham, C. F. (1991). The hindsight bias: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 48, 147–168.
12. Clore, G. L., Wyer, R. S., Dienes, B., Gasper, K., Gohm, C. L., & Isbell, L. (2001). Affective feelings as feedback: Some cognitive consequences. In L. L. Martin & G. L. Clore (Eds.), Theories of mood and cognition: A user’s handbook (pp. 27–62). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
13. Emerson, R. W. (1837). The American scholar. Retrieved March 7, 2010, from http://www.emersoncentral.com/amscholar.htm
14. Erickson, T. A., & Mattson, M. F. (1981). From words to meaning: A semantic illusion. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 540–552.
15. Fischhoff, B. (1975). Hindsight ≠ foresight: The effect of outcome knowledge on judg-ments under uncertainty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 288–299.
16. Fischhoff, B. (1982). Debiasing. In D. Kahneman, P. Slovic, & A. Tversky (Eds.), Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (pp. 422–444). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
17. Förster, J., & Liberman, N. (2007). Knowledge activation. In A. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 201–231). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
18. Guilbault, R. L., Bryant, F. B., Posavac, E. J., & Brockway, J. H. (2004). A meta-analysis of research on hindsight bias. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 26, 103–117.
19. Grush, J. E. (1976). Attitude formation and mere exposure phenomena: A nonartifactual expla-nation of empirical findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 281–290.
20. Haddock, G. (2002). It’s easy to like or dislike Tony Blair: Accessibility experiences and the favorability of attitude judgments. British Journal of Social Psychology, 93, 257–267.
21. Haddock, G., Rothman, A. J., Reber, R., & Schwarz, N. (1999). Forming judgments of attitude certainty, intensity, and importance: The role of subjective experiences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 771–782.
22. Harley, E. M., Carlsen, K. A., & Loftus, G. R. (2004). The “saw-it-all-along” effect: Demonstrations of visual hindsight bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 960–968.
23. Hawkins, S. A., & Hastie, R. (1990). Hindsight: Biased judgments of past events after the outcomes are known. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 311–327.
24. Higgins, E. T. (1996). Knowledge activation: Accessibility, applicability, and salience. In E. T. Higgins & A. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 133–168). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
25. Higgins, E. T. (1998). The aboutness principle: A pervasive influence on human inference. Social Cognition, 16, 173–198.
26. Huntsinger, J. R. (in press). Mood and trust in intuition interactively orchestrate corre-spondence between implicit and explicit attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
27. Jacoby, L. L., Kelley, C. M., Brown, J., & Jasechko, J. (1989). Becoming famous overnight: Limits on the ability to avoid unconscious influences of the past. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 326–338.
28. Jacoby, L. L., Kelley, C. M., & Dywan, J. (1989). Memory attributions. In H. L. Roediger & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honor of Endel Tulving (pp. 391–422). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
29. Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Nelson, T. O. (1998). Social metacognition: An expansionist review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 137–154.
30. Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rational-ity. American Psychologist, 58, 697–720.
31. Kelley, C. M., & Rhodes, M. G. (2002). Making sense and nonsense of experience: Attributions in memory and judgment. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 41, 293–320.
32. Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know what we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100, 609–639.
33. Kruglanski, A. W., Freund, T., & Bar Tal, D. (1996). Motivational effects in the mere expo-sure paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 479–499.
34. McGlone, M. S., & Tofighbakhsh, J. (2000). Birds of a feather flock conjointly (?): Rhyme as reason in aphorisms. Psychological Science, 11, 424–428.
35. Ofir, C., & Mazursky, D. (1997). Does a surprising outcome reinforce or reverse the hind-sight bias? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 51–57.
36. Oppenheimer, D. M. (2004). Spontaneous discounting of availability in fluency judgment tasks. Psychological Science, 15, 100–105.
37. Oppenheimer, D. M. (2006). Consequences of erudite vernacular utilized irrespective of necessity: Problems with using long words needlessly. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 139–156.
38. Oppenheimer, D. M. (2008). The secret life of fluency. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 237–241.
39. Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2008). Persuasion: From single to multiple to meta-cognitive pro-cesses. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 137–147.
40. Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. G. (2007). The meta-cognitive model (MCM) of attitudes: Implications for attitude measurement, change, and strength. Social Cognition, 25, 657–686.
41. Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., Tormala, Z. L., & Wegener, D. T. (2007). The role of meta-cognition in social judgment. In A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 254–284). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
42. Pezzo, M. V., & Pezzo, S. P. (2007). Making sense after failure: A motivated model of hind-sight bias. Social Cognition, 25, 147–164.
43. Plous, S. (1993). The psychology of judgment and decision making. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
44. Pronin, E., & Jacobs, E. (2008). Thought speed, mood, and the experience of mental motion. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 461–485.
45. Reber, R., Schwarz, N., & Winkielman, P. (2004). Processing fluency as aesthetic pleasure: Is beauty in the perceiver’s processing experience? Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 364–382.
46. Reber, R., Winkielman, P., & Schwarz, N. (1998). Effects of perceptual fluency on affective judgments. Psychological Science, 9, 45–48.
47. Robinson, M. D., & Clore, G. L. (2002). Belief and feeling: Evidence for an accessibility model of emotion self-report. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 934–960.
48. Ross, M., & Wilson, A. E. (2002). It feels like yesterday: Self-esteem, valence of personal past experiences, and judgments of subjective distance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 792–803.
49. Rothman, A. J., & Schwarz, N. (1998). Constructing preferences of vulnerability: Personal relevance and the use of experiential information in health judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 1053–1064.
50. Ruder, M., & Bless, H. (2003). Mood and the reliance on the ease of retrieval heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 20–32.
51. Sanna, L. J. (2007). When imagination is difficult: Metacognitive experiences at the fault lines of reality. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30, 464–465.
52. Sanna, L. J., Chang, E. C., & Carter, S. E. (2004). All our troubles seem so far away: Temporal pattern to accessible alternatives and retrospective team appraisals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1359–1371.
53. Sanna, L. J., Chang, E. C., Carter, S. E., & Small, E. M. (2006). The future is now: Prospective temporal self-appraisals among defensive pessimists and optimists. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 727–739.
54. Sanna, L. J., Kennedy, L. A., Chang, E. C., & Miceli, P. M. (2009). When thoughts don’t feel like they used to: Changing feelings of subjective ease in judgments of the past. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 940–946.
55. Sanna, L. J., & Schwarz, N. (2003). Debiasing the hindsight bias: The role of accessibil-ity experiences and (mis)attributions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 287–295.
56. Sanna, L. J., & Schwarz, N. (2004). Integrating temporal biases: The interplay of focal thoughts and accessibility experiences. Psychological Science, 15, 474–481.
57. Sanna, L. J., & Schwarz, N. (2006). Metacognitive experiences and human judgment: The case of hindsight bias and its debiasing. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 172–176.
58. Sanna, L. J., & Schwarz, N. (2007). Metacognitive experiences and hindsight bias: It’s not just the thought (content) that counts! Social Cognition, 25, 185–202.
59. Sanna, L. J., Schwarz, N., & Small, E. M. (2002). Accessibility experiences and the hindsight bias: I knew it all along versus it could never have happened. Memory & Cognition, 30, 1288–1296.
60. Sanna, L. J., Schwarz, N., & Stocker, S. L. (2002). When debiasing backfires: Accessible content and accessibility experiences in debiasing hindsight. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 497–502.
61. Schwarz, N. (1998). Accessible content and accessibility experiences: The interplay of declar-ative and experiential information in judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 87–99.
62. Schwarz, N. (2004). Metacognitive experiences in consumer judgment and decision mak-ing. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14, 332–348.
63. Schwarz, N., Bless, H., Strack, F., Klumpp, G., Rittenauer-Schatka, H., & Simons, A. (1991). Ease of retrieval as information: Another look at the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 195–202.
64. Schwarz, N., Cho, H., & Xu, J. (2005, July). Diverging inferences from identical inputs: The role of naive theories. Paper presented at the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology, Würzburg, Germany.
65. Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (2007). Feelings and phenomenal experiences. In A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 385–407). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
66. Schwarz, N., Sanna, L. J., Skurnik, I., & Yoon, C. (2007). Metacognitive experiences and the intricacies of setting people straight: Implications for debiasing and public informa-tion campaigns. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 127–161.
67. Skurnik, I., Yoon, C., Park, D. C., & Schwarz, N. (2005). How warnings about false claims become recommendations. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 713–724.
68. Song, H., & Schwarz, N. (2008). Fluency and the detection of distortions: Low processing fluency attenuates the Moses illusion. Social Cognition, 26, 791–799.
69. Song, H., & Schwarz, N. (2009). If it’s difficult to pronounce, it must be risky: Fluency, familiarity, and risk perception. Psychological Science, 20, 135–138.
70. Strack, F., & Neumann, R. (2000). Furrowing the brow may undermine perceived fame: The role of facial feedback in judgments of celebrity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 762–768.
71. Tormala, Z. L., Falces, C., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2007). Ease of retrieval effects in social judgment: The role of unrequested cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 143–157.
72. Tormala, Z. L., Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2002). Ease of retrieval effects in persuasion: The roles of elaboration and thought confidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1700–1712.
73. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5, 207–232.
74. Wänke, M., & Bless, H. (2000). The effects of subjective ease of retrieval on attitudinal judgments: The moderating role of processing motivation. In H. Bless & J. P. Forgas (Eds.), The message within: The role of subjective experience in social cognition and behavior (pp. 143–161). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
75. Wänke, M., Bless, H., & Biller, B. (1996). Subjective experiences versus content of infor-mation in the construction of attitude judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1105–1113.
76. Wänke, M., Bohner, G., & Jurowitsch, A. (1997). There are many reasons to drive a BMW: Does imagined ease of argument generation influence attitudes? Journal of Consumer Research, 24, 170–177.
77. Weaver, K., Garcia, S. M., Schwarz, N., & Miller, D. T. (2007). Inferring the popularity of an opinion from its familiarity: A repetitive voice can sound like a chorus. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 821–833.
78. Werth, L., & Strack, F. (2003). An inferential approach to the knew-it-all-along phenom-enon. Memory, 11, 411–419.
79. Whittlesea, B. W. A., & Leboe, J. P. (2000). The heuristic basis of remembering ad classi-fication: Fluency, generation, and resemblance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129, 84–106.
80. Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2008). Explaining away: A model of affective adaptation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 370–386.
81. Winkielman, P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2001). Mind at ease puts a smile on the face: Psychophysiological evidence that processing facilitation leads to positive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 989–1000.
82. Winkielman, P., & Schwarz, N. (2001). How pleasant was your childhood? Beliefs about memory shape inferences from experienced difficulty of recall. Psychological Science, 12, 176–179.
83. Wirtz, J. J. (2006). Responding to surprise. Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 45–65.
84. Wyer, R. S., & Srull, T. K. (1989). Memory and cognition in its social context. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
85. Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 1–27.