Brazilian guidelines for the management of candidiasis - a joint meeting report of three medical societies: Sociedade Brasileira de Infectologia, Sociedade Paulista de Infectologia and Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical

Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 283-312

  Colombo, Arnaldo Lopes ^a   Guimarães, Thaís ^b   Camargo, Luis Fernando Aranha ^a   Richtmann, Rosana ^c   de Queiroz Telles, Flavio ^d   Salles, Mauro José Costa ^e   da Cunha, Clóvis Arns ^d   Yasuda, Maria Aparecida Shikanai ^f   Moretti, Maria Luiza ^g   Nucci, Marcio ^h  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b HOSPITAL DO SERVIDOR PÚBLICO ESTADUAL DE SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^c INSTITUTO DE INFECTOLOGIA EMÍLIO RIBAS   (Brazil)

^d FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF PARANÁ   (Brazil)

^e Santa Casa de Misericordia de Sao Paulo   (Brazil)

^f UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^g UNIVERSITY OF CAMPINAS   (Brazil)

^h FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Antifungals; Candidemia; Candidiasis; Treatment

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; AMPHOTERICIN B DEOXYCHOLATE; AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX; ANIDULAFUNGIN; BORIC ACID; BUTOCONAZOLE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CASPOFUNGIN; CLOTRIMAZOLE; CYCLOSPORIN; DEXAMETHASONE; ECHINOCANDIN; ECONAZOLE; FLUCONAZOLE; ISAVUCONAZOLE; ITRACONAZOLE; KETOCONAZOLE; MICAFUNGIN; MICONAZOLE; NYSTATIN; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PLACEBO; POSACONAZOLE; RIFAMPICIN; TERCONAZOLE; TERFENADINE; TRIAZOLE DERIVATIVE; VORICONAZOLE;

ANEMIA; ANTIFUNGAL RESISTANCE; ARTICLE; BLADDER IRRIGATION; BLASTOMYCOSIS; BRAZIL; BRONCHOSPASM; CANDIDA; CANDIDA ENDOCARDITIS; CANDIDA ENDOPHTHALMITIS; CANDIDEMIA; CANDIDIASIS; CANDIDURIA; CATHETER INFECTION; CATHETER REMOVAL; CHILL; CHROMOMYCOSIS; COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; DERMATOMYCOSIS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG FEVER; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG INHIBITION; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TISSUE LEVEL; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG URINE LEVEL; ESOPHAGUS CANDIDIASIS; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FACE EDEMA; FEVER; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMAN; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPOTENSION; INFECTION SENSITIVITY; INFUSION RELATED REACTION; INJECTION SITE WARMTH; INVASIVE ASPERGILLOSIS; INVASIVE CANDIDIASIS; KIDNEY PANCREAS TRANSPLANTATION; LEUKOPENIA; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MEDICAL SOCIETY; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; MUCOCUTANEOUS CANDIDIASIS; MUCORMYCOSIS; MYCOSIS; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUTROPENIA; NONHUMAN; ONYCHOMYCOSIS; OROPHARYNX CANDIDIASIS; PERITONEAL CANDIDIASIS; PHAEOHYPHOMYCOSIS; PHLEBITIS; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRURITUS; PULMONARY CANDIDIASIS; RECURRENT INFECTION; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SKIN MANIFESTATION; SOUTH AMERICAN BLASTOMYCOSIS; SPECIES DIVERSITY; SPOROTRICHOSIS; SYSTEMIC MYCOSIS; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; THROMBOPHLEBITIS; THRUSH; TOXIC HEPATITIS; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VAGINA CANDIDIASIS; VISUAL DISORDER; VOMITING;

ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS; BRAZIL; CANDIDA; CANDIDIASIS; HUMANS; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL;

EID: 84878415311     PISSN: 14138670     EISSN: 16784391     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.bjid.2013.02.001     Document Type: Article

References (256)

1. Colombo A.L., Guimarães T. Epidemiology of hematogenous infections due to Candida spp. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2003, 36:599-607.
2. Dignani M.C., Solomkin J.S., Anaissie E. Candida. Medical mycology. 1 2003, 195-239. Churchill Livingstone, Filadélfia. E. Anaissie, M.R. McGinnis, M.A. Pfaller (Eds.).
3. Vanden Abbeele A., de Meel H., Ahariz M., Perraudin J.P., Beyer I., Courtois P. Denture contamination by yeasts in the elderly. Gerodontology 2008, 25:222-228.
4. Johnson N.W. The mouth in HIV/AIDS: markers of disease status and management challenges for the dental profession. Aust Dent J 2010, 55(Suppl. 1):85-102.
5. Kennedy M.A., Sobel J.D. Vulvovaginal candidiasis caused by non-albicans Candida species: new insights. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2010, 12:465-470.
6. Achkar J.M., Fries B.C. Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clin Microbiol Rev 2010, 23:253-273.
7. Morace G., Borghi E. Fungal infections in ICU patients: epidemiology and the role of diagnostics. Minerva Anestesiol 2010, 76:950-956.
8. Wey S.B., Mori M., Pfaller M.A., Woolson R.F., Wenzel R.P. Hospital acquired candidemia: the attributable mortality and excess length of stay. Ann Intern Med 1988, 148:2642-2645.
9. Colombo A.L., Nucci M., Park B.J., et al. Epidemiology of candidemia in Brazil: a nationwide sentinel surveillance of candidemia in eleven medical centers. J Clin Microbiol 2006, 44:2816-2823.
10. Bassetti M., Trecarichi E.M., Righi E., et al. Incidence, risk factors and predictors of outcome of candidemia: survey in 2 Italian university hospitals. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2007, 58:325-331.
11. Diekema D.J., Messer S.A., Brueggemann A.B., et al. Epidemiology of candidemia: 3-year results from the emerging infections and the epidemiology of Iowa organisms study. J Clin Microbiol 2002, 40:1298-1302.
12. Colombo A.L., Guimarães T. Candiduria: a clinical and therapeutic approach. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2007, 40:332-337.
13. Bennett R.J. A Candida-based view of fungal sex and pathogenesis. Genome Biol 2009, 10:230.
14. Coleman D.C., Rinaldi M.G., Haynes K.A., et al. Importance of Candida species other than Candida albicans as opportunistic pathogens. Med Mycol 1998, 36(Suppl. 1):156-165.
15. Tavanti A., Davidson A.D., Gow N.A., Maiden M.C., Odds F.C. Candida orthopsilosis and Candida metapsilosis spp. nov. to replace Candida parapsilosis groups II and III. J Clin Microbiol 2005, 43:284-292.
16. Gonçalves S.S., Amorim C.S., Nucci M., et al. Prevalence rates and antifungal susceptibility profiles of the Candida parapsilosis species complex: results from a nationwide surveillance of candidaemia in Brazil. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010, 16:885-887.
17. Hiller E., Zavrel M., Hauser N., et al. Adaptation, adhesion and invasion during interaction of Candida albicans with the host-focus on the function of cell wall proteins. Int J Med Microbiol 2011, 301:384-389.
18. Ben-Ami R., Garcia-Effron G., Lewis R.E., et al. Fitness and virulence costs of Candida albicans FKS1 hot spot mutations associated with echinocandin resistance. J Infect Dis 2011, 204:626-635.
19. Sanglard D., Odds F.C. Resistance of Candida species to antifungal agents: molecular mechanisms and clinical consequences. Lancet Infect Dis 2002, 2:73-85.
20. Sullivan D., Coleman D. Candida dubliniensis: characteristics and identification. J Clin Microbiol 1998, 36:329-334.
21. Mariano P.L., Milan E.P., da Matta D.A., Colombo A.L. Candida dubliniensis identification in Brazilian yeast stock collection. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2003, 98:533-538.
22. Krcmery V., Barnes A.J. Non-albicans Candida spp. causing fungemia: pathogenicity and antifungal resistance. J Hosp Infect 2002, 50:243-260.
23. Godoy P., Tiraboschi I.N., Severo L.C., et al. Species distribution and antifungal susceptibility profile of Candida spp. bloodstream isolates from Latin American hospitals. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2003, 98:401-405.
24. Pfaller M.A. Nosocomial candidiasis: emerging species, reservoirs and modes of transmission. Clin Infect Dis 1996, 22(Suppl. 2):S89-S94.
25. Colombo A.L., Guimarães T., Silva L.R., et al. Prospective observational study of candidemia in São Paulo, Brazil: incidence rate, epidemiology, and predictors of mortality. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007, 28:570-576.
26. Costa S.F., Marinho I., Araújo E.A., Manrique A.E., Medeiros E.A.S., Levin A.S. Nosocomial fungaemia: a 2-year prospective study. J Hosp Infect 2000, 45:69-72.
27. Levin A.S., Costa S.F., Mussi N.S., et al. Candida parapsilosis fungemia associated with implantable and semiimplantable central venous catheters and the hands of health care workers. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1998, 30:243-249.
28. Pfaller M.A., Messer S.A., Moet G.J., Jones R.N., Castanheira M. Candida bloodstream infections: comparison of species distribution and resistance to echinocandin and azole antifungal agents in Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and non-ICU settings in the SENT RY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2008-2009). Int J Antimicrob Agents 2011, 38:65-69.
29. Pfaller M.A., Diekema D.J., Ostrosky-Zeichner L., et al. Correlation of MIC with outcome for Candida species tested against caspofungin, anidulafungin, and micafungin: analysis and proposal for interpretive MIC breakpoints. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:2620-2629.
30. Mora-Duarte J., Betts R., Rotstein C., et al. Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2002, 347:2020-2029.
31. Kuse E.R., Chetchotisakd P., da Cunha C.A., et al. Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for candidaemia and invasive candidosis: a phase III randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2007, 369:1519-1527.
32. Reboli A.C., Rotstein C., Pappas P.G., et al. Anidulafungin versus fluconazole for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2007, 356:2472-2482.
33. Kofteridis D.P., Lewis R.E., Kontoyiannis D.P. Caspofungin-nonsusceptible Candida isolates in cancer patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010, 65:293-295.
34. Colombo A.L., Ngai A.L., Bourque M., et al. Caspofungin use in patients with invasive candidiasis caused by common non-albicans Candida species: review of the caspofungin database. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010, 54:1864-1871.
35. Kale-Pradhan P.B., Morgan G., Wilhelm S.M., Johnson L.B. Comparative efficacy of echinocandins and nonechinocandins for the treatment of Candida parapsilosis infections: a meta-analysis. Pharmacotherapy 2010, 30:1207-1213.
36. Melo A.S., Bizerra F.C., Freymüller E., Arthington-Skaggs B.A., Colombo A.L. Biofilm production and evaluation of antifungal susceptibility amongst clinical Candida spp. isolates, including strains of the Candida parapsilosis complex. Med Mycol 2011, 49:253-262.
37. Wingard J.R. Importance of Candida species other than C. albicans as pathogens in oncology patients. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 20:115-125.
38. Colombo A.L., Nucci M., Salomão R., et al. High rate of nonalbicans candidemia in Brazilian tertiary care hospitals. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999, 34:281-286.
39. Goldani L.Z., Mario P.S. Candida tropicalis fungemia in a tertiary care hospital. J Infect 2003, 46:150-160.
40. Alp S., Sancak B., Hascelik G., Arikan S. Influence of different susceptibility testing methods and media on determination of the relevant fluconazole minimum inhibitory concentrations for heavy trailing Candida isolates with low-high phenotype. Mycoses 2010, 53:475-480.
41. Abi-Said D., Anaissie E., Uzun O., Pinzcowski H., Vartivarian S. The epidemiology of hematogenous candidiasis caused by different Candida species. Clin Infect Dis 1997, 24:1122-1128.
42. Nucci M., Queiroz-Telles F., Tobón A.M., Restrepo A., Colombo A.L. Epidemiology of opportunistic fungal infections in Latin America. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 51:561-570.
43. Sampaio Camargo T.Z., Marra A.R., Silva C.V., et al. Secular trends of candidemia in a tertiary care hospital. Am J Infect Control 2010, 38:546-551.
44. Pfaller M.A., Diekema D.J., Jones R.N., et al. International surveillance of bloodstream infections due to Candida species: frequency of occurrence and in vitro susceptibilities to fluconazole, ravuconazole and voriconazole of isolates collected from 1997 through 1999 in the SENT RY antimicrobial surveillance program. J Clin Microbiol 2001, 39:3254-3259.
45. Safran D.B., Dawson E. The effect of empiric and prophylactic treatment with fluconazole on yeast isolates in a surgical trauma intensive care unit. Arch Surg 1997, 132:1184-1188.
46. Pfaller M.A., Messer S.A., Boyken L., Tendolkar S., Hollis R.J., Diekema D.J. Geographic variation in the susceptibilities of invasive isolates of Candida glabrata to seven systemically active antifungal agents: a global assessment from the ARTEMIS Antifungal Surveillance Program conducted in 2001 and 2002. J Clin Microbiol 2004, 42:3142-3146.
47. Diekema D.J., Pfaller M.A., Jones R.N. Age-related trends in pathogen frequency and antimicrobial susceptibility of bloodstream isolates in North America. SENT RY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program, 1997-2000. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2002, 20:412-418.
48. Iwen P.C., Kelly D.M., Reed E.C., Hinrichs S.H. Invasive infection due to Candida krusei in immunocompromised patients not treated with fluconazole. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 20:342-347.
49. Drago M., Scaltrito M.M., Morace G. In vitro activity of voriconazole and other antifungal agents against clinical isolates of Candida glabrata and Candida krusei. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004, 23:619-624.
50. Girmenia C., Pizzarelli G., Cristini F., et al. Candida guilliermondii fungemia in patients with hematologic malignancies. J Clin Microbiol 2006, 44:2458-2464.
51. Hazen K.C. New and emerging yeast pathogens. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995, 8:462-478.
52. Merz W.G. Candida lusitaniae: frequency of recovery, colonization, infection and amphotericin B resistance. J Clin Microbiol 1984, 20:1194-1195.
53. Hata D.J., Hall L., Fothergill A.W., Larone D.H., Wengenack N.L. Multicenter evaluation of the new VITEK 2 advanced colorimetric yeast identification card. J Clin Microbiol 2007, 45:1087-1092.
54. Forrest G. Role of antifungal susceptibility testing in patient management. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2006, 19:538-543.
55. Perkhofer S., Mrazek C., Hartl L., Lass-Flörl C. In vitro susceptibility testing in fungi: what is its role in clinical practice?. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2010, 12:401-408.
56. Traeder C., Kowoll S., Arastéh K. Candida infection in HIV positive patients 1985-2007. Mycoses 2008, 51(Suppl. 2):58-61.
57. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) Reference method for broth dilution antifungal susceptibility testing of yeasts. Document M27-A3 2008, vol. 28:1-7. 3rd ed.
58. Subcommittee on Antifungal Susceptibility Testing (AFST) of the, ESCMID European Committee for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). EUCAST Definitive Document EDef 7.1: method for the determination of broth dilution MICs of antifungal agents for fermentative yeasts. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008, 14:398-405.
59. ® for antifungal susceptibility testing of yeasts isolated from blood cultures against four antifungal agents. New Microbiol 2011, 34:195-201.
60. Cuenca-Estrella M., Rodriguez-Tudela J.L. The current role of the reference procedures by CLSI and EUCAST in the detection of resistance to antifungal agents in vitro. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2010, 8:267-276.
61. Baginski M., Czub J. Amphotericin B and its new derivatives - mode of action. Curr Drug Metab 2009, 10:459-469.
62. Laniado-Laborín R., Cabrales-Vargas M.N. Amphotericin B: side effects and toxicity. Rev Iberoam Micol 2009, 26:223-227.
63. Rüping M.J., Vehreschild J.J., Cornely O.A. Antifungal treatment strategies in high risk patients. Mycoses 2008, 51(Suppl. 2):46-51.
64. Wingard J.R., White M.H., Anaissie E., et al. A randomized, double-blind comparative trial evaluating the safety of liposomal amphotericin B versus amphotericin B lipid complex in the empirical treatment of febrile neutropenia. L Amph/ABLC Collaborative Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 31:1155-1163.
65. Safdar A., Ma J., Saliba F., et al. Drug-induced nephrotoxicity caused by amphotericin B lipid complex and liposomal amphotericin B: a review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2010, 89:236-244.
66. Groll A.H., Walsh T.J. Uncommon opportunistic fungi: new nosocomial threats. Clin Microbiol Infect 2001, 7(Suppl. 2):8-24.
67. Pappas P.G. Invasive candidiasis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2006, 20:485-506.
68. Maertens J.A. History of the development of azole derivatives. Clin Microbiol Infect 2004, 10(Suppl. 1):1-10.
69. Como J.A., Dismukes W.E. Oral azole drugs as systemic antifungal therapy. N Engl J Med 1994, 330:263-272.
70. Heeres J., Meerpoel L., Lewi P. Conazoles. Molecules 2010, 15:4129-4188.
71. Aperis G., Mylonakis E. Newer triazole antifungal agents: pharmacology, spectrum, clinical efficacy and limitations. Expert Opin Invest Drugs 2006, 15:579-602.
72. Pfaller M.A., Espinel-Ingroff A., Boyken L., et al. Comparison of the broth microdilution (BMD) method of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing with the 24-hour CLSI BMD method for testing susceptibility of Candida species to fluconazole, posaconazole, and voriconazole by use of epidemiological cutoff values. J Clin Microbiol 2011, 49:845-850.
73. Arendrup M.C. Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis. Curr Opin Crit Care 2010, 16:445-452.
74. Wheat J., Sarosi G., McKinsey D., et al. Practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:688-695.
75. Shikanai-Yasuda M.A., Telles Filho Fde Q., Mendes R.P., Colombo A.L., Moretti M.L. Guidelines in paracoccidioidomycosis. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2006, 39:297-310.
76. De Sarro A., La Camera E., Fera M.T. New and investigational triazole agents for the treatment of invasive fungal infections. J Chemother 2008, 20:661-671.
77. Charlier C., Hart E., Lefort A., et al. Fluconazole for the management of invasive candidiasis: where do we stand after 15 years?. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006, 57:384-410.
78. Goa K.L., Barradell L.B. Fluconazole. An update of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic use in major superficial and systemic mycoses in immunocompromised patients. Drugs 1995, 50:658-690.
79. Scott L.J., Simpson D. Voriconazole: a review of its use in the management of invasive fungal infections. Drugs 2007, 67:269-298.
80. Walsh T.J., Anaissie E.J., Denning D.W., et al. Treatment of aspergillosis: clinical practice guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46:327-360.
81. Kullberg B.J., Sobel J.D., Ruhnke M., et al. Voriconazole versus a regimen of amphotericin B followed by fluconazole for candidaemia in non-neutropenic patients: a randomized non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2005, 366:1435-1442.
82. Mehta A.K., Langston A.A. Use of posaconazole in the treatment of invasive fungal infections. Expert Rev Hematol 2009, 2:619-630.
83. Sucher A.J., Chahine E.B., Balcer H.E. Echinocandins: the newest class of antifungals. Ann Pharmacother 2009, 43:1647-1657.
84. Hope W.W., Shoham S., Walsh T.J. The pharmacology and clinical use of caspofungin. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2007, 3:263-274.
85. Fisher B.T., Zaoutis T. Caspofungin for the treatment of pediatric fungal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008, 27:1099-1102.
86. Garnock-Jones K.P., Keam S.J. Caspofungin: in pediatric patients with fungal infections. Paediatr Drugs 2009, 11:259-269.
87. Lehrnbecher T., Groll A.H. Micafungin: a brief review of pharmacology, safety, and antifungal efficacy in pediatric patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2010, 55:229-232.
88. Menichetti F. Anidulafungin, a new echinocandin: effectiveness and tolerability. Drugs 2009, 69(Suppl. 1):95-97.
89. Pappas P.G., Rotstein C.M., Betts R.F., et al. Micafungin versus caspofungin for treatment of candidemia and other forms of invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45:883-893.
90. Temesgen Z., Barreto J., Vento S. Micafungin - the newest echinocandin. Drugs Today (Barc) 2009, 45:469-478.
91. The periodic health examination. Can Med Assoc J 1979, 121:1193-1254. Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination.
92. Vazquez J.A., Sobel J.D. Mucosal candidiasis. Infect Dis Clin N Am 2002, 16:793-820.
93. Weerasuriya N., Snape J. A study of Candida esophagitis in elderly patients attending a district general hospital in the UK. Dis Esophagus 2006, 19:189-192.
94. Sugar A.M. Oroesophageal candidiasis. AIDS Read 2004, 14:572.
95. Vazquez J.A. Invasive oroesophageal candidiasis: current and developing treatment options. Drugs 2003, 63:971-989.
96. Goldman M., Cloud G.A., Wade K.D., et al. A randomized study of the use of fluconazole in continuous versus episodic therapy in patients with advanced HIV infection and a history of oropharyngeal candidiasis: AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 323/Mycoses Study Group Study 40. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:1473-1480.
97. Underwood J.A., Williams J.W., Keate R.F. Clinical findings and risk factors for Candida esophagitis in outpatients. Dis Esophagus 2003, 16:66-69.
98. Ellepola A.N., Samaranayake L.P. Oral candidal infections and antimycotics. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2000, 11:172-198.
99. Golub J.S., Johns M.M. Esophageal candidiasis. Ear Nose Throat J 2005, 84:765.
100. Cha R., Sobel J.D. Fluconazole for the treatment of candidiasis: 15 years experience. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2004, 2:357-366.
101. Thom K., Forrest G. Gastrointestinal infections in immunocompromised hosts. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2006, 22:18-23.
102. Pappas P.G., Kauffman C.A., Andes D., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:503-535.
103. Barbaro G., Barbarini G., Di Lorenzo G. Fluconazole compared with itraconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in AIDS patients: a double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical study. Scand J Infect Dis 1995, 27:613-617.
104. Queiroz-Telles F., Silva N., Carvalho M.M., et al. Evaluation of efficacy and safety of itraconazole oral solution for the treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in AIDS patients. Braz J Infect Dis 2001, 5:60-66.
105. Ally R., Schurmann D., Kreisel W., et al. A randomized, double blind, double-dummy, multicenter trial of voriconazole and fluconazole in the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in immunocompromised patients. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:1447-1454.
106. Vasquez J.A., Skiest D.J., Nieto L., et al. A multicenter randomized trial evaluating posaconazole versus fluconazole for the treatment of oropharyngeal candidiasis in subjects with HIV/AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42:1179-1186.
107. Skiest D.J., Vazquez J.A., Anstead G.M., et al. Posaconazole for the treatment of azole refractory oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiasis in subjects with HIV infections. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44:607-614.
108. Finlay P.M., Richardson M.D., Robertson A.G. A comparative study of the efficacy of fluconazole and amphotericin B in the treatment of oropharyngeal candidosis in patients undergoing radiotherapy for head and neck tumours. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1996, 34:23-25.
109. Villanueva A., Gotuzzo E., Arathoon E.G., et al. A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Am J Med 2002, 113:294-299.
110. Krause D.S., Simjee A.E., van Rensburg C., et al. A randomized, double-blind trial of anidulafungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 39:770-775.
111. deWet N., Llanos-Cuentas A., Suleiman J., et al. A randomized, double blind, parallel-group, dose-response study of micafungin compared with fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis in HIV positive patients. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 39:842-849.
112. Giraldo P., Witkin S. Vaginal candidiasis: an incomprehensible challenge. I Bras Dis Sex Transm 1998, 10:31-36.
113. Holanda A., Fernandes A., Bezerra C., Milan E. Candidíase vulvovaginal: uma revisão de literatura. Femina 2005, 33:47-51.
114. Novawack D., Lara F. Estudo dos aspectos clínicos, epidemiológicos e atualização terapêutica das vulvovaginites por Candida sp, Trichomonas vaginalis e vaginoses bacterianas por Gardnerella vaginalis. JBM 1999, 77:46-50.
115. Galle L., Gianinni M. Prevalência e susceptibilidade de leveduras vaginais. J Bras Patol Med Lab 2004, 40:229-236.
116. Sobel J.D. Pathogenesis and treatment of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 1992, 14:S148-S153.
117. Sobel J.D. Vulvovaginal candidosis. Lancet 2007, 369:1961-1971.
118. Costa M., Fernandes O., Silva M. Candidíase vulvovaginal: aspectos clínicos, tratamento oral com azólicos e suscetibilidade in vitro. Rev Pat Trop 2003, 32:145-162.
119. Watson M.C., Grimshaw J.M., Bond C.M., Mollison J., Ludbrook A. Oral versus intra-vaginal imidazole and triazole anti-fungal agents for the treatment of uncomplicated vulvovaginal candidiasis (thrush): a systematic review. BJOG 2002, 109:85-95.
120. Urunsak M., Ilkit M., Euruke C., Urunsak I. Clinical and mycological efficacy of single-day oral treatment with itraconazole (400mg) in acute vulvovaginal candidosis. Mycoses 2004, 47:422-427.
121. Kimberly A.W., Stuart M.B. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines 2006. MMWR 2006, 55:1-54.
122. Sobel J.D., Wiesenfeld H.C., Martens M., et al. Maintenance fluconazole therapy for recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:876-883.
123. Fong I.W. The value of chronic suppressive therapy with itraconazole versus clotrimazole in women with recurrent vaginal candidiasis. Genitourin Med 1992, 68:374-377.
124. Witt A., Kaufmann U., Bitschnau M., et al. Monthly itraconazole versus classic homeopathy for the treatment of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis: a randomised trial. BJOG 2009, 116:1499-1505.
125. Ray D., Goswami R., Banerjee U., et al. Prevalence of Candida glabrata and its response to boric acid vaginal suppositories in comparison with oral fluconazole in patients with diabetes and vulvovaginal candidiasis. Diabetes Care 2007, 30:312-317.
126. Alvarez-Lerma F., Nolla-Salas J., Leon C., et al. Candiduria in critically ill patients admitted to intensive care medical units. Intensive Care Med 2003, 29:1069-1076.
127. Kauffman C.A. Candiduria. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:S371-S376.
128. Sobel J.D., Fisher J.F., Kauffman C.A., Newman C.A. Candida urinary tract infections - epidemiology. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52(Suppl. 6):S433-S436.
129. Nucci M. Candiduria in hospitalized patients: a review. Braz J Infect Dis 2000, 4:168-172.
130. Oliveira R.D., Maffei C.M., Martinez R. Nosocomial urinary tract infections by Candida species. Rev Assoc Med Bras 2001, 47:231-235.
131. Kobayashi C.C., De Fernandes O.F., Miranda K.C., De Sousa E.D., Silva Mdo R. Candiduria in hospital patients: a study prospective. Mycopathologia 2004, 158:49-52.
132. Passos X.S., Sales W.S., Maciel P.J., et al. Candida colonization in intensive care unit patients' urine. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2005, 100:925-928.
133. Sobel J.D. Controversies in the diagnosis of candiduria: what is the critical colony count. Curr Treat Opt Infect Dis 2002, 4:81-83.
134. Fisher J.F., Newman C.L., Sobel J.D. Yeasts in the urine: solutions for a budding problem. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 20:183-189.
135. Ang B.S.P., Telenti A., King B., Steckalberg J.M., Wilson W.D. Candidemia from urinary tract source: microbiological aspects and clinical significance. Clin Infect Dis 1993, 17:622-627.
136. Lundstrom T., Sobel J. Nosocomial candiduria: a review. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 32:1602-1607.
137. Sobel J.D., Kauffman C.A., McKinsey D., et al. Candiduria: a randomized, double-blind study of treatment with fluconazole and placebo. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:19-24.
138. Fan-Havard P., O'Donovan C., Smith S.M., Oh J., Bamberger M., Eng R.H.K. Oral fluconazole versus amphotericin B bladder irrigation for treatment of candidal funguria. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 21:960-965.
139. Fisher J.F., Sobel J.D., Kauffman C.A., Newman C.A. Candida urinary tract infections - treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52(Suppl. 6):S457-S466.
140. Johnson J.R. Should all catheterized patients with candiduria be treated?. Clin Infect Dis 1993, 17:814.
141. Bibashi E., Memmos D., Kokolina E., et al. Fungal peritonitis complicating peritoneal dialysis during an 11-year period: report of 46 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:927-931.
142. Powe N.R. Septicemia in dialysis patients: incidence, risk factors and prognosis. Kidney Int 1999, 55:1081-1090.
143. Chen K.H., Chang C.T., Yu C.C., et al. Candida parapsilosis peritonitis has more complications than other Candida peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients. Ren Fail 2006, 28:241-246.
144. Wang A.Y., Yu A.W., Li P.K., et al. Factors predicting outcome of fungal peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis: analysis of a 9-year experience of fungal peritonitis in a single center. Am J Kidney Dis 2000, 36:1183-1192.
145. Prasad N., Gupta A. Fungal peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients. Perit Dial Int 2005, 25:207-222.
146. Matuszkiewicz-Rowinska J. Update on fungal peritonitis and its treatment. Perit Dial Int 2009, 29(Suppl. 2):S161-S165.
147. Kameoka H., Kumakawa K., Matuoka T., Nakano M., Shiraiwa Y., Yamaguchi O. Intraperitoneal fluconazole for fungal peritonitis in CAPD: report of two cases. Perit Dial Int 1999, 19:481-483.
148. Wong P.N., Lo K.Y., Tong G.M., et al. Treatment of fungal peritonitis with a combination of intravenous amphotericin B and oral flucytosine and delayed catheter replacement in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 2008, 28:155-162.
149. Cornely O.A., Lasso M., Betts R., et al. Caspofungin for the treatment of less common forms of invasive candidiasis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007, 60:363-369.
150. Sandven P., Qvist H., Skovlund E., et al. Significance of Candida recovered from intraoperative specimens in patients with intra-abdominal perforations. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:541-547.
151. Calandra T., Bille J., Schneider R., Mosimann F., Francioli P. Clinical significance of Candida isolated from peritoneum in surgical patients. Lancet 1989, 2:1437-1440.
152. Montravers P., Dupont H., Gauzit R., et al. Candida as a risk factor for mortality in peritonitis. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:646-652.
153. Solomkin J.S., Mazuski J.E., Bradley J.S., et al. Diagnosis and management of complicated intra-abdominal infection in adults and children: guidelines by the Surgical Infection Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 50:133-164.
154. Stijn I., Blota B., Koenraad H., Vandewoudea B., Jan J. Candida peritonitis. Curr Opin Crit Care 2007, 13:195-199.
155. Azoulay E., Cohen Y., Zahar J.R., et al. Practices in nonneutropenic ICU patients with Candida-positive airway specimens. Intensive Care Med 2004, 30:1384-1389.
156. Nunley D.R., Gal A.A., Vega J.D., Perlino C., Smith P., Lawrence E.C. Saprophytic fungal infections and complications involving the bronchial anastomosis following human lung transplantation. Chest 2002, 122:1185-1191.
157. El-Ebiary M., Torres A., Fabregas N. Significance of the isolation of Candida species from respiratory samples in critically ill, non-neutropenic patients. An immediate postmortem histologic study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997, 156:583.
158. Alvarez-Lerma F., Palomar M., Leon C., et al. Fungal colonization and/or infection in intensive care units. Multicenter study of 1,562 patients. Med Clin (Barc) 2003, 121:161-166.
159. Kontoyiannis D.P., Reddy B.T., Torres H.A., et al. Pulmonary candidiasis in patients with cancer: an autopsy study. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 34:400-403.
160. Franquet T., Muller N.L., Lee K.S., Oikonomou A., Flint J.D. Pulmonary candidiasis after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: thin-section CT findings. Radiology 2005, 236:332-337.
161. Oner-Eyuboglu F., Karacan O., Akcay S., Arslan H., Demirhan B., Haberal M. Invasive pulmonary fungal infections in solid organ transplant recipients: a four-year review. Transplant Proc 2003, 35:2689-2691.
162. Yamada H., Kotaki H., Takahashi T. Recommendations for the treatment of fungal pneumonias. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2003, 4:1241-1258.
163. Cole G.T., Halawa A.A., Anaisse E.J. The role of the gastrointestinal tract in hematogenous candidiasis: from the laboratory to the bedside. Clin Infect Dis 1996, 22(Suppl. 2):73-88.
164. Alexander J.W., Boyce S.T., Babcock G.F. The process of microbial translocation. Ann Surg 1990, 212:496-510.
165. Lunel F.M.V., Meis J.F.G.M., Voss A. Nosocomial fungal infections: candidemia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1999, 34:213-220.
166. Wey S.B., Mori M., Pfaller M.A., Woolson R.F., Wenzel R.P. Hospital acquired candidemia. The attributable mortality and excess length of stay. Arch Intern Med 1988, 148:2642-2645.
167. Colombo A.L., Perfect J., DiNubile M., et al. Global distribution and outcomes for Candida species causing invasive candidiasis: results from an international randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003, 22:470-474.
168. Pasqualotto A.C., Zimerman R.A., Alves S.H., et al. Take control over your fluconazole prescriptions: the growing importance of Candida glabrata as an agent of candidemia in Brazil. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008, 29:898-899.
169. Debusk C.H., Daoud R., Thirumoorthi M.C., Wilson F.M., Khatib R. Candidemia: current epidemiologic characteristics and a long term follow-up of the survivors. Scand J Infect Dis 1994, 26:697-703.
170. Kriengkauykiat J., Ito J.I., Dadwal S.S. Epidemiology and treatment approaches in management of invasive fungal infections. Clin Epidemiol 2011, 3:175-191.
171. Bodey G.P., Luna M. Skin lesions associated with disseminated candidiasis. JAMA 1974, 229:1466-1468.
172. Rodriguez-Adrian L.J., King R.T., Tamayo-Derat L.G., Miller J.W., Garcia C.A., Rex J.H. Retinal lesions as clues to disseminated bacterial and candidal infections: frequency, natural history, and etiology. Medicine (Baltimore) 2003, 82:187-202.
173. Oude Lashof A.M., Rothova A., Sobel J.D., et al. Ocular manifestations of candidemia. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:262-268.
174. Krishna R., Amuh D., Lowder C.Y., Gordon S.M., Adal K.A., Hall G. Should all patients with candidemia have an ophthalmic examination to rule out ocular candidiasis. Eye 2000, 14:30-34.
175. Filler S.G., Kullberg B.J. Deep-seated candidal infections. Medical mycology 2003, 341-348. Churchill Livingstone, Filadélfia. 1st ed. E. Anaissie, M.R. McGinnis, M.A. Pfaller (Eds.).
176. Donnino M.W., Goyal N., Terlecki T.M., et al. Inadequate blood volume collected for culture: a survey of health care professionals. Mayo Clin Proc 2007, 82:1069-1072.
177. Horvath L.L., George B.J., Hospenthal D.R. Detection of fifteen species of Candida in an automated blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol 2007, 45:3062-3064.
178. Masood A., Sallah S. Chronic disseminated candidiasis in patients with acute leukemia: emphasis on diagnostic definition and treatment. Leuk Res 2005, 29:493-501.
179. Almirante B., Cuenca-Estrella M. Candidemia: impact of epidemiological studies on the treatment and prognosis of a serious infection. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2011, 29:325-327.
180. Motta A.L., Almeida G.M., Almeida Júnior J.N., Burattini M.N., Rossi F. Candidemia epidemiology and susceptibility profile in the largest Brazilian teaching hospital complex. Braz J Infect Dis 2010, 14:441-448.
181. Andes DR, Safdar N, Baddley JW, et al.; for the Mycoses Study Group. Impact of treatment strategy on outcomes in patients with candidemia and other forms of invasive candidiasis: a patient-level quantitative review of randomized trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:1110-22.
182. Rex J.H., Pappas P.G., Karchmer A.W., et al. A randomized and blinded multicenter trial of high-dose fluconazole plus placebo versus fluconazole plus amphotericin B as therapy for candidemia and its consequences in nonneutropenic subjects. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:1221-1228.
183. Bates D.W., Su L., Yu D.T., et al. Mortality and costs of acute renal failure associated with amphotericin B therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 32:686-693.
184. Rex J.H., Bennett J.E., Sugar A.M., et al. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. N Engl J Med 1994, 331:1325-1330.
185. Sallah S., Semelka R.C., Sallah W., Vainright J.R., Philips D.L. Amphotericin B lipid complex for the treatment of patients with acute leukemia and hepatosplenic candidiasis. Leuk Res 1999, 23:995-999.
186. Hughes W.T., Armstrong D., Bodey G.P., et al. 2002 Guidelines for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with cancer. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 34:730-751.
187. Walsh T.J., Teppler H., Donowitz G.R., et al. Caspofungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:1391-1402.
188. Corey M. Modern antifungal therapy for neutropenic fever. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2009, 11:29-34.
189. Slavin M.A., Sorrell T.C., Marriott D., et al. Candidaemia in adult cancer patients: risks for fluconazole-resistant isolates and death. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010, 65:1042-1051.
190. Riddell J., Comer G.M., Kauffman C.A. Treatment of endogenous fungal endophthalmitis: focus on new antifungal agents. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:648-653.
191. Akler M.E., Vellend H., McNeely D.M., Walmsley S.L., Gold W.L. Use of fluconazole in the treatment of candida endophthalmitis. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 20:657-664.
192. Parke D.W., Jones D.B., Gentry L.O. Endogenous endophthalmitis among patients with candidemia. Ophthalmology 1982, 89:789-796.
193. Melamed R., Leibovitz E., Abramson O., Levitas A., Zucker N., Gorodisher R. Successful non-surgical treatment of Candida tropicalis endocarditis with liposomal amphotericin-B (AmBisome). Scand J Infect Dis 2000, 32:86-89.
194. Aaron L., Therby A., Viard J.P., Lahoulou R., Dupont B. Successful medical treatment of Candida albicans in mechanical prosthetic valve endocarditis. Scand J Infect Dis 2003, 35:351-352.
195. Westling K., Thalme A., Julander I. Candida albicans tricuspid valve endocarditis in an intravenous drug addict: successful treatment with fluconazole. Scand J Infect Dis 2005, 37:310-311.
196. Rajendram R., Alp N.J., Mitchell A.R., Bowler I.C., Forfar J.C. Candida prosthetic valve endocarditis cured by caspofungin therapy without valve replacement. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:e72-e74.
197. Steinbach W.J., Perfect J.R., Cabell C.H., et al. A meta-analysis of medical versus surgical therapy for Candida endocarditis. J Infect 2005, 51:230-247.
198. Walsh T.J., Whithcomb P.O., Revankar S.G., Pizzo P.A. Successful treatment of hepatosplenic candidiasis through repeated cycles of chemotherapy and neutropenia. Cancer 1995, 76:2357-2362.
199. Pachón J., Cisneros J.M., Collado-Romacho A.R., et al. Tratamiento de las infecciones fúngicas invasora. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2006, 24:254-263.
200. Bjerke J.W., Meyers J.D., Bowden R.A. Hepatosplenic candidiasis, a contraindication to marrow transplantation. Blood 1994, 84:2811-2814.
201. Gokhale P.C., Barapatre R.J., Advani S.H., Kshirsagar N.A., Pandya S.K. Successful treatment of disseminated candidiasis resistant to amphotericin B by liposomal amphotericin B: a case report. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 1993, 119:569-571.
202. Anaissie E., Bodey G.P., Kantarjian H., et al. Fluconazole therapy for chronic disseminated candidiasis in patients with leukemia and prior amphotericin B therapy. Am J Med 1991, 91:142-150.
203. Kauffman C.A., Bradley S.F., Ross S.C., Weber D.R. Hepatosplenic candidiasis: successful treatment with fluconazole. Am J Med 1991, 91:137-141.
204. Sora F., Chiusolo P., Piccirillo N., et al. Successful treatment with caspofungin of hepatosplenic candidiasis resistant to liposomal amphotericin B. Clin Infect Dis 2002, 35:1135-1136.
205. Rex J.H., Bennett J.E., Sugar A.M., et al. Intravascular catheter exchange and duration of candidemia. NIAID Mycoses Study Group and the Candidemia Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 21:994-996.
206. Raad I., Hanna H., Boktour M., et al. Management of central venous catheters in patients with cancer and candidemia. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38:1119-1127.
207. Almirante B., Rodríguez D., Park B.J., et al. Epidemiology and predictors of mortality in cases of Candida bloodstream infection: results from population-based surveillance, Barcelona, Spain, from 2002 to 2003. J Clin Microbiol 2005, 43:1829-1835.
208. Pasqualotto A.C., de Moraes A.B., Zanini R.R., Severo L.C. Analysis of independent risk factors for death among pediatric patients with candidemia and a central venous catheter in place. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007, 28:799-804.
209. Rodriguez D., Park B.J., Almirante B., et al. Impact of early central venous catheter removal on outcome in patients with candidaemia. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007, 13:788-793.
210. Liu C.Y., Huang L.J., Wang W.S., et al. Candidemia in cancer patients: impact of early removal of non-tunneled central venous catheters on outcome. J Infect 2009, 58:154-160.
211. Nucci M., Anaissie E., Betts R.F., et al. Early removal of central venous catheter in patients with candidemia does not improve outcome: analysis of 842 patients from 2 randomized clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis 2010, 51:295-303.
212. Empiric antifungal therapy in febrile granulocytopenic patients. EORTC International Antimicrobial Therapy Cooperative Group. Am J Med 1989, 86:668-672.
213. Pizzo P.A., Robichaud K.J., Gill F.A., Witebsky F.G. Empiric antibiotic and antifungal therapy for cancer patients with prolonged fever and granulocytopenia. Am J Med 1982, 72:101-111.
214. Walsh T.J., Finberg R.W., Arndt C., et al. Liposomal amphotericin B for empirical therapy in patients with persistent fever and neutropenia. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. N Engl J Med 1999, 340:764-771.
215. Walsh T.J., Pappas P., Winston D.J., et al. Voriconazole compared with liposomal amphotericin B for empirical antifungal therapy in patients with neutropenia and persistent fever. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:225-234.
216. Maertens J., Deeren D., Dierickx D., Theunissen K. Preemptive antifungal therapy: still a way to go. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2006, 19:551-556.
217. Maertens J., Theunissen K., Verhoef G., et al. Galactomannan and computed tomography-based preemptive antifungal therapy in neutropenic patients at high risk for invasive fungal infection: a prospective feasibility study. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41:1242-1250.
218. Odabasi Z., Mattiuzzi G., Estey E., et al. Beta-d-glucan as a diagnostic adjunct for invasive fungal infections: validation, cutoff development, and performance in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 39:199-205.
219. Freifeld A.G., Bow E.J., Sepkowitz K.A., et al. Clinical practice guideline for the use of antimicrobial agents in neutropenic patients with cancer: 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 52:427-431.
220. Jarvis W.R. Epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections, with emphasis on Candida species. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 20:1526-1530.
221. Morgan J., Meltzer M.I., Plikaytis B.D., et al. Excess mortality, hospital stay, and cost due to candidemia: a case-control study using data from population-based candidemia surveillance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005, 26:540-547.
222. Garey K.W., Rege M., Pai M.P., et al. Time to initiation of fluconazole therapy impacts mortality in patients with candidemia: a multi-institutional study. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43:25-31.
223. Morrell M., Fraser V.J., Kollef M.H. Delaying the empiric treatment of candida bloodstream infection until positive blood culture results are obtained: a potential risk factor for hospital mortality. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49:3640-3645.
224. Paphitou N.I., Ostrosky-Zeichner L., Rex J.H. Rules for identifying patients at increased risk for candida infections in the surgical intensive care unit: approach to developing practical criteria for systematic use in antifungal prophylaxis trials. Med Mycol 2005, 43:235-243.
225. Ostrosky-Zeichner L., Sable C., Sobel J., et al. Multicenter retrospective development and validation of a clinical prediction rule for nosocomial invasive candidiasis in the intensive care setting. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007, 26:271-276.
226. Dupont H., Bourichon A., Paugam-Burtz C., Mantz J., Desmonts J.M. Can yeast isolation in peritoneal fluid be predicted in intensive care unit patients with peritonitis?. Crit Care Med 2003, 31:752-757.
227. Leon C., Ruiz-Santana S., Saavedra P., et al. A bedside scoring system (Candida score) for early antifungal treatment in nonneutropenic critically ill patients with Candida colonization. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:730-737.
228. Piarroux R., Grenouillet F., Balvay P., et al. Assessment of preemptive treatment to prevent severe candidiasis in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med 2004, 32:2443-2449.
229. Takesue Y., Kakehashi M., Ohge H., et al. Combined assessment of beta-d-glucan and degree of candida colonization before starting empiric therapy for candidiasis in surgical patients. World J Surg 2004, 28:625-630.
230. Moreira-Oliveira M.S., Mikami Y., Miyaji M., Imai T., Schreiber A.Z., Moretti M.L. Diagnosis of candidemia by polymerase chain reaction and blood culture: prospective study in a high-risk population and identification of variables associated with development of candidemia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005, 24:721-726.
231. Walsh T.J., Lee J.W., Roilides E., Pizzo P.A. Recent progress and current problems in management of invasive fungal infections in patients with neoplastic diseases. Curr Opin Oncol 1992, 4:647-655.
232. Bow E.J., Laverdiere M., Lussier N., Rotstein C., Cheang M.S., Ioannou S. Antifungal prophylaxis for severely neutropenic chemotherapy recipients: a meta analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Cancer 2002, 94:3230-3246.
233. Slavin M.A., Osborne B., Adams R., et al. Efficacy and safety of fluconazole prophylaxis for fungal infections after marrow transplantation: a prospective, randomized, double-blind study. J Infect Dis 1995, 171:1545-1552.
234. Goodman J.L., Winston D.J., Greenfield R.A., et al. A controlled trial of fluconazole to prevent fungal infections in patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 1992, 326:845-851.
235. MacMillan M.L., Goodman J.L., DeFor T.E., Weisdorf D.J. Fluconazole to prevent yeast infections in bone marrow transplantation patients: a randomized trial of high versus reduced dose, and determination of the value of maintenance therapy. Am J Med 2002, 112:369-379.
236. van Burik J.A., Ratanatharathorn V., Stepan D.E., et al. Micafungin versus fluconazole for prophylaxis against invasive fungal infections during neutropenia in patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 39:1407-1416.
237. Oren I., Rowe J.M., Sprecher H., et al. A prospective randomized trial of itraconazole vs fluconazole for the prevention of fungal infections in patients with acute leukemia and hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 2006, 38:127-134.
238. Winston D.J., Maziarz R.T., Chandrasekar P.H., et al. Intravenous and oral itraconazole versus intravenous and oral fluconazole for long-term antifungal prophylaxis in allogeneic hematopoietic stem-cell transplant recipients: a multicenter, randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2003, 138:705-713.
239. Wingard J.R., Carter S.L., Walsh T.J., et al. Results of a randomized, double-blind trial of fluconazole vs. voriconazole for the prevention of invasive fungal infections in 600 allogeneic blood and marrow transplant patients. Blood 2007, 110:55a.
240. Ullmann A.J., Lipton J.H., Vesole D.H., et al. Posaconazole or fluconazole for prophylaxis in severe graft-versus-host disease. N Engl J Med 2007, 356:335-347.
241. Cornely O.A., Maertens J., Winston D.J., et al. Posaconazole vs. fluconazole or itraconazole prophylaxis in patients with neutropenia. N Engl J Med 2007, 356:348-359.
242. Glasmacher A., Prentice A., Gorschluter M., et al. Itraconazole prevents invasive fungal infections in neutropenic patients treated for hematologic malignancies: evidence from a meta-analysis of 3,597 patients. J Clin Oncol 2003, 21:4615-4626.
243. Kubiak D.W., Bryar J.M., McDonnell A.M., et al. Evaluation of caspofungin or micafungin as empiric antifungal therapy in adult patients with persistent febrile neutropenia: a retrospective, observational, sequential cohort analysis. Clin Ther 2010, 32:637-648.
244. Abott K.C.L., Hypolite I., Poropatich R.K., et al. Hospitalizations for fungal infections after renal transplantation in the United States. Transpl Infect Dis 2001, 3:203-211.
245. Safdar N., Slattery W.R., Knasinski V., et al. Predictors and outcomes of candiduria in renal transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40:1413-1421.
246. Husain S., Tollemar J., Dominguez E.A., et al. Changes in the spectrum and risk factors for invasive candidiasis in liver transplant recipients: prospective, multicenter, case controlled study. Transplantation 2003, 75:2023-2029.
247. Cruciani M., Mengoli C., Malena M., Bosco O., Serpelloni G., Grossi P. Antifungal prophylaxis in liver transplant patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Transpl 2006, 12:850-858.
248. Rabkin J.M., Oroloff S.L., Corless C.L., et al. Association of fungal infection and increased mortality in liver transplant recipients. Am J Surg 2000, 179:426-430.
249. Singh N., Wagener M.M., Marino I.R., Gayowski T. Trends in invasive fungal infections in liver transplant recipients: correlation with evolution in transplantation practices. Transplantation 2002, 73:63-67.
250. Benedetti E., Gruessner A.C., Troppmann C., et al. Intra-abdominal fungal infections after pancreas transplantation: incidence, treatment and outcome. J Am Coll Surg 1996, 183:307-316.
251. Michalak G., Kwiatkowski A., Bieniasz M., et al. Infectious complications after simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc 2005, 37:3560-3563.
252. Grossi P., Farina C., Fiocchi R., Dalla Gasperina D. Prevalence and outcome of invasive fungal infections in 1,963 thoracic organ transplant recipients: a multicenter retrospective study. Italian Study Group of Fungal Infections in Thoracic Organ Transplant Recipients. Transplantation 2000, 70:112-116.
253. Dummer J.S., Lazariashvilli N., Barnes J., Ninan M., Milstone A.P. A survey of antifungal management in lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2004, 23:1376-1381.
254. Zaragoza R., Pemán J., Salavert M., et al. Multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of invasive fungal infections in adult patients. Prophylaxis, empirical, preemptive or targeted therapy, which is the best in the different hosts?. Ther Clin Risk Manage 2008, 4:1261-1280.
255. Shorr A.F., Chung K., Jackson W.L., Waterman P.E., Kollef M.H. Fluconazole prophylaxis in critically ill surgical patients: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:1928-1935.
256. Lam S.W., Eschenauer G.A., Carver P.L. Evolving role of early antifungals in the adult intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2009, 37:1580-1593.