Multifactorial Influences of Childhood Obesity

Current Obesity Reports

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 10-22

  Ang, Yeow Nyin ^a   Wee, Bee Suan ^a,b   Poh, Bee Koon ^a   Ismail, Mohd Noor ^c  

^a UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA   (Malaysia)

^b UNIVERSITI SULTAN ZAINAL ABIDIN   (Malaysia)

^c UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA   (Malaysia)

Author keywords

Adiposity; Body composition; Child; Multifactorial influences; Obesity

Indexed keywords

ALPHA INTERMEDIN; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; COCAINE AND AMPHETAMINE REGULATED TRANSCRIPT PEPTIDE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; KEXIN; LEPTIN; LEPTIN RECEPTOR; MELANOCORTIN 4 RECEPTOR; NICOTINE; PROOPIOMELANOCORTIN;

CHILDHOOD OBESITY; CULTURAL FACTOR; DIET; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; FOOD INTAKE; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; HYPERPHAGIA; MONOGENIC DISORDER; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SLEEP; SOCIAL STATUS;

EID: 84878235490     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21624968     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s13679-012-0042-7     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Helba M, Binkovitz LA. Pediatric body composition analysis with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Pediatr Radiol. 2009; 39(7): 647-56.
2. International Food Information Council Foundation: Moving to prevent childhood obesity. Available at www. foodinsight. org/Newsletter/Detail. aspx?topic=Moving_to_Prevent_Childhood_Obesity. Accessed October 2012.
3. Gahagan S. Child and adolescent obesity. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care. 2004; 34: 6-43.
4. Quah YV, Poh BK, Ismail MN. Metabolic syndrome based on IDF criteria in a sample of normal weight and obese school children. Malaysian J Nutr. 2010; 16(2): 207-17.
5. Wee BS, Poh BK, Bulgiba A, et al. Risk of metabolic syndrome among children living in metropolitan Kuala Lumpur: a case control study. BMC Publ Health. 2011; 11: 333.
6. World Health Organization: Global strategy on diet, physical activity and health: Childhood overweight and obesity. Available at http://www. who. int/dietphysical activity/children/en/. Accessed October 2012.
7. Wang Y, Lobstein T. World wide trend in childhood overweight and obesity. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2006; 1: 11-25.
8. Budd GM, Hayman LL, Faan RN. Childhood obesity, determinants, prevention and treatment. J Cardiovas Nurs. 2006; 21(6): 437-41.
9. Anderson PM, Butcher KF, Levine PB. Economic perspectives on childhood obesity. Econ Perspectives. 2003; 27(3): 30-48.
10. Mountjoy K. Functions for pro-opiomelanocortin-derived peptides in obesity and diabetes. Biochem J. 2010; 428: 305-24.
11. Martinelli CE, Keogh JM, Greenfield JR, et al. Obesity due to melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) deficiency is associated with increased linear growth and final height, fasting hyperinsulinemia, and incompletely suppressed growth hormone secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011; 96(1): E181-8.
12. Hsuchou H, Kastin AJ, Wu X, et al. Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-1 in cerebral microvessels changes during development and influences urocortin transport across the blood-brain barrier. Endocrinology. 2010; 151(3): 1221-7.
13. Leshan RL, Opland DM, Louis GW, et al. Ventral tegmental area leptin receptor neurons specifically project to and regulate cocaine-and amphetamine-regulated transcript neurons of the extended central amygdala. J Neurosci. 2010; 30(16): 5713-23.
14. Davis JF, Choi DL, Schurdak JD, et al. Leptin regulates energy balance and motivation through action at distinct neural circuits. Biol Psychiat. 2011; 69(7): 668-74.
15. Byerly MS, Simon J, Lebihan-Duval E, et al. Effects of BDNF, T3, and corticosterone on expression of the hypothalamic obesity gene network in vivo and in vitro. Am J Physiol-Reg, I. 2009; 296(4): R1180-9.
16. Tolson KP, Gemelli T, Gautron L, et al. Postnatal Sim1 deficiency causes hyperphagic obesity and reduced Mc4r and oxytocin expression. J Neurosci. 2010; 30(10): 3803-12.
17. Farooqi IS. Genetic, molecular and physiological insights into human obesity. Eur J Clin Invest. 2011; 41(4): 451-5.
18. Rankinen T, Bray MS, Hagberg JM, et al. The human gene map for performance and health-related fitness phenotypes: the 2005 update. Med Sci Sports Exercise. 2006; 38(11): 1863-88.
19. Saunders CL, Chiodini BD, Sham P, et al. Meta-Analysis of Genome-wide Linkage Studies in BMI and Obesity. Obesity. 2012; 15(9): 2263-75.
20. •• Speliotes EK, Willer CJ, Berndt SI, et al. Association analyses of 249, 796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index. Nat Genet. 2010; 42(11): 937-48. This paper continued to identify the BMI-associated loci, which consisted of 14 known loci from previous GWA studies with additional 18 loci from large Europe children. The authors were also examined the association of the BMI loci with metabolic traits and the possible function in body weight regulation.
21. Frayling TM, Timpson NJ, Weedon MN, et al. A common variant in the FTO gene is associated with body mass index and predisposes to childhood and adult obesity. Science. 2007; 316(5826): 889-94.
22. Wardle J, Carnell S, Haworth CM, et al. Obesity associated genetic variation in FTO is associated with diminished satiety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008; 93(9): 3640-3.
23. Speakman JR. A nonadaptive scenario explaining the genetic predisposition to obesity: the "predation release" hypothesis. Cell Metabolism. 2007; 6(1): 5-12.
24. Bradfield JP, Taal HR, Timpson NJ, et al. A genome-wide association meta-analysis identifies new childhood obesity loci. Nat Genet. 2012; 44(5): 526-31.
25. Scherag A, Dina C, Hinney A, et al. Two new Loci for body-weight regulation identified in a joint analysis of genome-wide association studies for early-onset extreme obesity in French and German study groups. PLoS Genet. 2010; 6(4): e1000916.
26. Fernandez JR, Klimentidis YC, Dulin-Keita A, Casazza K. Genetic influences in childhood obesity: recent progress and recommendations for experimental designs. Int J Obes. 2012; 36: 479-84.
27. Faith MS, Pietrobelli A, Heo M, et al. A twin study of self-regulatory eating in early childhood: estimates of genetic and environement influences, and measurement considerations. Int J Obes. 2012; 36: 931-7.
28. Agfhani A, Goran MI. Racial differerences in the associatin of subcutaneous and visceral fat on bone mineral content in prepubertal children. Calcif Tissue Int. 2006; 79: 383-8.
29. Lee S, Kuk JL, Hannon TS, Arslaian SA. Race and gender differences in the relationships between anthropometrics and abdominal fat in youth. Obesity. 2008; 16: 1066-71.
30. Liu A, Byrne NM, Kagawa M, et al. Ethnic differences in body fat distribution among Asian pre-pubertal children: a cross-sectional multicenter study. BMC Publ Health. 2011; 11: 500.
31. Silventoinen K, Rokholm B, Kaprio J, Sørensen TIA. The genetic and environmental influences on childhood obesity: a systematic review of twin and adoption studies. Int J Obes. 2010; 34: 29-40.
32. Manco M, Dallapiccola B. Genetics of Pediatric Obesity. Pediatrics. 2012; 130(1): 123-33.
33. Burrage LC, McCandless SE. Genetics of childhood obesity. US Pediatrics Rev. 2007; 1: 60-3.
34. Bauer F, Elbers CC, Adan RA, et al. Obesity genes identified in genome-wide association studies are associated with adiposity measures and potentially with nutrient-specific food preference. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009; 90(4): 951-9.
35. Phillips CM, Kesse-Guyot E, McManus R, et al. High Dietary Saturated Fat Intake Accentuates Obesity Risk Associated with the Fat Mass and Obesity-Associated Gene in Adults. J Nutr. 2012; 142(5): 824-31.
36. Bouchard C. Childhood obesity: are genetic differences involved? Am J Clin Nutr. 2009; 85(5): 1494s-501.
37. Di Castelnuovo A, Quacquaruccio G, Donati MB, et al. Spousal concordance for major coronary risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2009; 169(1): 1-8.
38. Power C, Pouliou T, Li L, et al. Parental and offspring adiposity associations: insights from the 1958 British birth cohort. Annal Hum Biol. 2011; 38(4): 390-9.
39. Jeffery RW, Rick AM. Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Associations between Body Mass Index and Marriage-Related Factors. Obesity Res. 2012; 10(8): 809-15.
40. Ochoa MC, Azcona C, Moreno-Aliaga MJ, et al. Influence of parental body mass index on offspring body mass index in a Spanish population. Revista Espanola de Obesidad. 2009; 7(6): 395-401.
41. Wang Y, Beydoun MA. The obesity epidemic in the United States-gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiol Rev. 2007; 29: 6-28.
42. Misra A, Khurana L. Obesity-related non-communicable diseases: South Asians vs White Caucasians. Int JObes. 2010; 35(2): 167-87.
43. Lakshmi S, Metcalf B, Joglekar C, et al. Differences in body composition and metabolic status between white UK and Asian Indian children (EarlyBird 24 and the Pune Maternal Nutrition Study). Ped Obes. 2012; 7: 347-54.
44. • Casazza KL, Hanks J, Beasley TM, et al. Beyond thriftiness: independent and interactive effects of genetic and dietary factors on variations in fat deposition and distribution across populations. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2011; 145(2): 181-91. This paper described the interactive contribution of genetic and diet in body fat storage of children from different population. For instance, adiposity measures were associated with European, particularly boys compare to African and girls at their counterparts.
45. Liu A, Byrne NM, Kagawa M, et al. Ethnic differences in the relationship between body mass index and percentage body fat among Asian children from different background. Brit J Nutr. 2011; 106: 1390-7.
46. Morimoto Y, Maskarinec G, Conroy SM, et al. Asian ethnicity is associated with a higher trunk/peripheral fat ratio in women and adolescent girls. J Epidemiol. 2012; 22(2): 130-5.
47. Stanfield KM, Wells JC, Fewtrell MS, et al. Differences in body composition between infants of South Asian and European ancestry: the London Mother and Baby Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2012; 41(5): 1409-18.
48. Reilly JJ, Armstrong J, Dorosty AR, et al. Early life risk factors for obesity in childhood: cohort study. BMJ. 2005; 330(7504): 1357.
49. Taveras EM, Gillman MW, Kleinman K, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in early-life risk factors for childhood obesity. Pediatrics. 2010; 125(4): 686-95.
50. Caprio S, Daniels SR, Drewnowski A, et al. Influence of race, ethnicity, and culture on childhood obesity: implications for prevention and treatment. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31(11): 2211-21.
51. Cuypers K, Ridder KD, Kvaløy K, et al. Leisure time activities I adolescence in the presence of susceptibility genes for obesity: risk or resilience against overweight in adulthood? The HUNT study. BMC Publ Health. 2012; 12: 820.
52. Cossrow N, Falkner B. Race/ethnic issues in obesity and obesity-related comorbidities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 89(6): 2590-4.
53. Huang RC, Burke V, Newnham J, et al. Perinatal and childhood origins of cardiovascular disease. Int J Obes. 2006; 31(2): 236-44.
54. Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Hanson CX, Thornburg KL. Effect of in utero and early-life conditions on adult health and disease. New England J Med. 2008; 359(1): 61-73.
55. Shankar K, Harrell A, Liu X, et al. Maternal obesity at conception programs obesity in the offspring. Am J Physiol-Reg I. 2008; 294(2): R528-38.
56. • Ferraro ZM, Barrowman N, Prud'homme D, et al. Excessive gestational weight gain predicts large for gestational age neonates independent of maternal body mass index. J Maternal-Fetal Neonatal Med. 2012; 25(5): 538-42. This paper found out that higher pre-pregnancy BMI and gestational weight gain was associated with increased rate of large-for-gestational-age birth weight after controlling for maternal and gestational age, pre-pregnancy weight, parity and smoking.
57. Yu ZB, Han SP, Zhu GZ, et al. Birth weight and subsequent risk of obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity Rev. 2011; 12(7): 525-42.
58. Stuebe AM, Forman MR, Michels KB. Maternal-recalled gestational weight gain, pre-pregnancy body mass index, and obesity in the daughter. International J Obes. 2009; 33(7): 743-52.
59. Catalano PM, Farrell K, Thomas A, et al. Perinatal risk factors for childhood obesity and metabolic dysregulation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009; 90(5): 1303-13.
60. O'Brien TE, Ray JG, Chan WS. Maternal body mass index and the risk of preeclampsia: a systematic overview. Epidemiology. 2003; 14(3): 368-74.
61. Langer O, Yogev Y, Xenakis EMJ, Brustman L. Overweight and obese in gestational diabetes: The impact on pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005; 192(6): 1768-76.
62. Hull HR, Thornton JC, Ji Y, et al.: Higher infant body fat with excessive gestational weight gain in overweight women. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011; 205(3): 211 e1-7.
63. Schack-Nielsen L, Michaelsen KF, Gamborg M, et al. Gestational weight gain in relation to offspring body mass index and obesity from infancy through adulthood. Int J Obes. 2010; 34(1): 67-74.
64. Ludwig DS, Currie J. The association between pregnancy weight gain and birthweight: a within-family comparison. Lancet. 2010; 376(9745): 984-90.
65. Adamo KB, Ferraro ZM, Brett KE. Can we modify the intrauterine environment to halt the intergenerational cycle of obesity? Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2012; 9(4): 1263-307.
66. McMillen IC, Rattanatray L, Duffield JA, et al.: The early origins of later obesity: pathways and mechanisms. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2009; 71-81.
67. Levin BE. Epigenetic influences on food intake and physical activity level: review of animal studies. Obesity. 2008; 16 Suppl 3: S51-4.
68. Bayol SA, Farrington SJ, Stickland NCA. Maternal 'junk food' diet in pregnancy and lactation promotes an exacerbated taste for 'junk food' and a greater propensity for obesity in rat offspring. Brit J Nutr. 2007; 98(4): 843-51.
69. Bayol SA, Simbi BH, Bertrand JA, Stickland NC. Offspring from mothers fed a 'junk food' diet in pregnancy and lactation exhibit exacerbated adiposity that is more pronounced in females. J Physiol. 2008; 586(13): 3219-30.
70. Schaefer-Graf UM, Graf K, Kulbacka I, et al. Maternal lipids as strong determinants of fetal environment and growth in pregnancies with gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2008; 31(9): 1858-63.
71. • Catalano PM, Hauguel-De Mouzon S. Is it time to revisit the Pedersen hypothesis in the face of the obesity epidemic? Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2011; 204(6): 479-87. This review article gave an understanding of the metabolic environment of obese diabetic women and lipid metabolism affecting fetal adiposity through perinatal metabolic programming since these issues relates to the increasing trends of obesity.
72. Moraeus L, Lissner L, Yngve A, et al. Multi-level influences on childhood obesity in Sweden: societal factors, parental determinants and child's lifestyle. Int J Obes. 2012; 36(7): 969-76.
73. Dollman J, Norton K, Norton L. Evidence for secular trends in children's physical activity behaviour. Br J Sports Med. 2005; 39: 892-7.
74. Han JC, Lowlor DA, Kimm SYS. Childhood obesity-2010: progress and challenges. Lancet. 2010; 375(9727): 1737-48.
75. Chhatwal J, Verma M, Riar SK. Obesity among pre-adolescent and adolescents of a developing country (India). Asia Pacific J Clin Nutr. 2004; 13(3): 231.
76. Manios Y, Panagiotakos DB, Pitsavos CE, et al. Implication of socio-economic status on the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Greek adults: the ATTICA study. Health policy (Amsterdam, Netherlands). 2005; 74(2): 224.
77. Wells JCK, Marphatia AA, Cole TJ, McCoy D. Associations of economic and gender inequality with global obesity prevalence: understanding the female excess. Social Sci Med. 2012; 75: 482-90.
78. •• Wang Y, Lim H. The global childhood obesity epidemic and the association between socio-economic status and childhood obesity. Int Rev Psych. 2012; 24(3): 176-88. This paper not only gave an overview of current prevalence of childhood obesity and its association with socio-economic status, but also foreseen the time trends of childhood obesity.
79. Chia Y. Dollars and pounds: the impact of family income on childhood weight. Appl Econ. 2012; 45(14): 1931-41.
80. Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B, von Kries R. Breast-feeding and childhood obesity-a systematic review. Int J Obes. 2004; 28(10): 1247-56.
81. Owen CG, Martin RM, Whincup PH, et al. Effect of Infant Feeding on the Risk of Obesity Across the Life Course: A Quantitative Review of Published Evidence. Pediatrics. 2005; 115(5): 1367-77.
82. Savino F, Nanni G, Maccario S, et al. Breast-fed infants have higher leptin values than formula-fed infants in the first four months of life. J Pedia Endocrinology and Metabol. 2004; 17(11): 1527-32.
83. Disantis KI, Collins BN, Fisher JO, Davey A. Do infants fed directly from the breast have improved appetite regulation and slower growth during early childhood compared with infants fed from a bottle? Int J Behav Nutr Phy. 2011; 8: 89.
84. Crume TL, Ogden L, Maligie M, et al. Long-term impact of neonatal breastfeeding on childhood adiposity and fat distribution among children exposed to diabetes in utero. Diabetes Care. 2011; 34(3): 641-5.
85. Pérez-Escamilla R, Obbagy JE, Altman JM, et al. Dietary energy density and body weight in adults and children: a systematic review. J Acad Nutr Dietetic. 2012; 112(15): 671-84.
86. Fulkerson JA, Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ, Story M. Family meal frequency and weight status among adolescents: cross-sectional and 5-year longitudinal associations. Obesity. 2008; 16(11): 2529-34.
87. Rosenheck R. Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk. Obesity Rev. 2008; 9(6): 535-47.
88. Astbury NM, Taylor MA, Macdonald IA. Breakfast consumption affects appetite, energy intake, and the metabolic and endocrine responses to foods consumed later in the day in male habitual breakfast eaters. J Nutr. 2011; 141(7): 1381-9.
89. Eloranta A, Lindi V, Schwab U, et al. Dietary factors associated with overweight and body adiposity in Finnish children aged 6-8 years: the PANIC Study. Int J Obes. 2012; 36(7): 950-5.
90. Antonogeorgos G, Panagiotakos D, Papadimitriou A, et al. Breakfast consumption and meal frequency interaction with childhood obesity. Ped Obes. 2012; 1: 65-72.
91. • Kral TV, Whiteford LM, Heo M, Faith MS. Effects of eating breakfast compared with skipping breakfast on ratings of appetite and intake at subsequent meals in 8- to 10-y-old children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011; 93(2): 284-91. This study gave an insight that over-compensation for the missing calories from skipping breakfast by eating more among children despite differences in subjective feelings of hunger and appetite.
92. Kral TVE, Allison DB, Birch LL, et al. Caloric compensation and eating in the absence of hunger in 5-to 12-y-old weight-discordant siblings. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012; 96(3): 574-83.
93. Vasquez F, Salazar G, Andrade M, et al. Energy balance and physical activity in obese children attending day-care centres. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006; 60(9): 1115-21.
94. van der Horst K, Oenema A, Ferreira I, et al. A systematic review of environmental correlates of obesity-related dietary behaviors in youth. Health Edu Res. 2007; 22(2): 203-26.
95. Gillis LJ, Bar-Or O. Food away from home, sugar-sweetened drink consumption and juvenile obesity. J Am Coll Nutr. 2003; 22(6): 539-45.
96. Amin TT, Al-Sultan AI, Ali A. Overweight and obesity and their relation to dietary habits and socio-demographic characteristics among male primary school children in Al-Hassa, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Eur J Nutr. 2008; 47(6): 310-8.
97. Neumark-Sztainer D, Story M, Hannan PJ, Croll J. Overweight status and eating patterns among adolescents: where do youths stand in comparison with the healthy people 2010 objectives? Am J Public Health. 2002; 92(5): 844-51.
98. McGinnis JM, Gootman JA & Kraak VI: Food marketing to children and youth: threat or opportunity? United States of America: National Academic Press; 2006.
99. Harris JL, Pomeranz JL, Lobstein T, Brownell KD. A crisis in the marketplace: how food marketing contributes to childhood obesity and what can be done. Ann Rev Public Health. 2009; 30: 211-25.
100. WHO: A framework for implementing the set of recommendations on the marketing of foods and non-alcoholic beverages to children. Geneva, Switzerland. 2012.
101. Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. New England J Med. 2007; 357(3): 266-81.
102. Earthman C, Beckman L, Masodkar K, Sibley S. The link between obesity and low circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations: considerations and implications. Int J Obes. 2011; 36(3): 387-96.
103. Bammann K, Sioen I, Huybrechts I, et al. The IDEFICS validation study on field methods for assessing physical activity and body composition in children: design and data collection. Int J Obes. 2011; 35: S79-87.
104. Lazaar N, Aucouturier J, Ratel S, et al. Effect of physical activity intervention on body composition in young children: influence of body mass index status and gender. Acta Paediatrica. 2007; 96(9): 1321-5.
105. Dulloo AG. Energy balance and body weight homeostasis. In: Kopelman PG, Caterson ID, Dietz WH, editors. Clinical Obesity in Adults and Children. Third Edition. Oxford: Blackwell; 2010. p. 67-81.
106. Pate RR, Freedson PS, Sallis JP, et al. Compliance with physical activity guidelines: Prevalence in a population of children and youth. Ann Epidemiol. 2002; 12(5): 303-8.
107. Food and Nutrition Research Institute: Physical activity: Do Asian children get enough? Available at http://www. fnri. dost. gov. ph/index. php?option=content& task=view& id=704.
108. Merchant AT, Dehghan M, Behnke-Cook D, Anand SS. Diet, physical activity and adiposity in children in poor and rich neighbourhoods: a cross sectional comparison. Nutr J. 2007; 6(1): 1.
109. Patrick K, Norman GJ, Calfas KJ, et al. Diet, physical activity and sedentary behaviors as risk factors for overweight in adolescence. Arch Ped Ado Med. 2004; 158(4): 385.
110. Ortega FB, Ruiz JR, Sjöström M. Physical activity, overweight and central adiposity in Swedish children and adolescents: the European Youth Heart Study. Int J Behav Nutr Phy Act. 2007; 4(1): 61.
111. Te Velde S, van Nassau F, Uijtdewilligen L, et al. Energy balance-related behaviours associated with overweight and obesity in preschool children: a systematic review of prospective studies. Obes Rev. 2012; 13: 56-74.
112. Jimenez-Pavon D, Kelly J, Reilly JJ. Associations between objectively measured habitual physical activity and adiposity in children and adolescents: Systematic review. Int J Ped Obes. 2010; 5(1): 3-18.
113. Özmert EN, Özdemir R, Pektas A, et al. Effect of activity and television viewing on BMI z-score in early adolescents in Turkey. World J Pediatr. 2011; 7(1): 37-40.
114. Temple JL, Giacomelli AM, Kent KM, Roemmich JN, Epstein LH. Television watching increases motivated responding for food and energy intake in children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007; 85(2): 355-61.
115. Carlson JA, Crespo NC, Sallis JF, et al. Dietary-Related and Physical Activity-Related Predictors of Obesity in Children: A 2-Year Prospective Study. Childhood Obesity (Formerly Obesity and Weight Management). 2012; 8(2): 110-5.
116. Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Jeffery AN, et al. Fatness leads to inactivity, but inactivity does not lead to fatness: a longitudinal study in children (EarlyBird 45). Arch Dis Child. 2011; 96: 942-7.
117. Reilly JJ, Kelly L, Montgomery C, et al. Physical activity to prevent obesity in young children: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2006; 333: 1041-3.
118. • Jiang F, Zhu S, Yan C, et al. Sleep and obesity in preschool children. J Ped. 2009; 154(6): 814-8. Caregivers who slept less and mothers with higher education related to short sleep duration of pre-school children, especially decreased bedtime sleep hours at night. Children who slept less than < 9. 4 hours per night were more likely to be obese than who slept ≥11 hours (odds ratio [OR], 4. 76; 95% CI, 1. 28-17. 69; P< 0. 05; OR, 3. 42; 95% CI, 1. 12-10. 46; P< 0. 05).
119. Al Mamun A, Lawlor DA, Cramb S, et al. Do childhood sleeping problems predict obesity in young adulthood? Evidence from a prospective birth cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2007; 166(12): 1368-73.
120. Cappuccio FP, Taggart FM, Kandala NB, Currie A. Meta-analysis of short sleep duration and obesity in children and adults. Sleep. 2008; 31(5): 619.
121. Marshall NS, Glozier N, Grunstein RR. Is sleep duration related to obesity? A critical review of the epidemiological evidence. Sleep Med Rev. 2008; 12(4): 289-98.
122. Horne J. Short sleep is a questionable risk factor for obesity and related disorders: statistical versus clinical significance. Biol Psychol. 2008; 77(3): 266-76.
123. Taheri S. The link between short sleep duration and obesity: we should recommend more sleep to prevent obesity. Arch Dis Child. 2006; 91(11): 881-4.
124. Eisenmann JC. Insight into the causes of the recent secular trend in pediatric obesity: Common sense does not always prevail for complex, multi-factorial phenotypes. Prevent Med. 2006; 42(5): 329-35.
125. Chen X, Beydoun MA, Wang Y. Is sleep duration associated with childhood obesity? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity. 2008; 16(2): 265-74.
126. Canapari CA, Hoppin AG, Kinane TB, et al. Relationship between sleep apnea, fat distribution, and insulin resistance in obese children. Journal of clinical sleep medicine: JCSM. 2011; 7(3): 268-73.
127. Arens R, Sin S, Nandalike K, et al. Upper airway structure and body fat composition in obese children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Resp Critical Care Med. 2011; 183(6): 782-7.
128. • Carter PJ, Taylor BJ, Williams SM, Taylor RW. Longitudinal analysis of sleep in relation to BMI and body fat in children: the FLAME study. BMJ. 2011; 342: d2712-2. This paper showed that the pre-school children who sleep less gain significantly more fat mass overtime even after adjustment for multiple determinants of body composition during growth. Each additional hour of sleep reduced the adjusted fat mass index by 0. 48 (0. 10 to 0. 86) for the change from age 3 to 7.
129. Bayer O, Rosario AS, Wabitsch M, Von Kries R. Sleep duration and obesity in children: is the association dependent on age and choice of the outcome parameter? Sleep. 2009; 32(9): 1183.
130. Nielsen LS, Danielsen KV, Sørensen TIA. Short sleep duration as a possible case of obesity: critical analysis of the epidemiological evidence. Obes Rev. 2011; 12(2): 78-92.
131. Matricciani L, Olds T, Williams M. A review of evidence for the claim that children are sleeping less than in the past. Sleep. 2011; 34(5): 651.
132. Morrissey TW, Dunifon RE, Kalil A. Maternal employment, work schedules, ad children's body mass index. Child Dev. 2011; 82: 66-81.
133. Li L, Law C, Conte RL, Power C. Intergenerational influences on childhood body mass index: the effect of parental body mass index trajectories. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009; 89(2): 551-7.
134. Oken E, Levitan E, Gillman M. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and child overweight: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Obes. 2007; 32(2): 201-10.
135. Ong KKL, Preece MA, Emmett PM, Emmett ML, Dunger DB. Size at birth and early childhood growth in relation to maternal smoking, parity and infant breast-feeding: longitudinal birth cohort study and analysis. Ped Res. 2002; 52(6): 863-7.
136. Von Kries R. Maternal Smoking during Pregnancy and Childhood Obesity. Am J Epidemiol. 2002; 156(10): 954-61.
137. Jo YH, Talmage DA, Role LW. Nicotinic receptor-mediated effects on appetite and food intake. J Neurobiol. 2002; 53(4): 618-32.
138. Audrain-McGovern J, Benowitz NL. Cigarette smoking, nicotine, and body weight. Clin Pharmacol Therap. 2011; 90(1): 164-8. doi: 164.
139. Lerman C, Berrettini W, Pinto A, et al. Changes in food reward following smoking cessation: a pharmacogenetic investigation. Psychopharmacology. 2004; 174(4): 571-7.
140. Mindlin M, Jenkins R, Law C. Maternal employment and indicators of child health: a systematic review in pre-school children in OECD countries. J Epidemiol Comm Health. 2009; 63: 340-50.
141. Champion SL, Rumbold AR, Steele EJ, et al. Parental work schedules and child overweight and obesity. Int J Obes. 2012; 36: 573-80.