Acne vulgaris and rosacea

Neuroimmunology of the Skin: Basic Science to Clinical Practice

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 219-232

  Zouboulis, C C ^a  

^a DESSAU MEDICAL CENTER   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84877921276     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-35989-0_20     Document Type: Chapter

References (122)

1. Aldana OL, Holland DB, Cunliffe WJ (1998) Variation in pilosebaceous duct keratinocyte proliferation in acne patients. Dermatology 196:98-99.
2. Alesci S, Bornstein SR (2000) Neuroimmunoregulation of androgens in the adrenal gland and the skin. Horm Res 54:281-286.
3. Alestas T, Ganceviciene R, Fimmel S, Müller-Decker K, Zouboulis CC (2006) Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of leukotriene B4 and prostaglandin E2 are active in sebaceous glands. J Mol Med 84:75-87.
4. Amann W (1975) Manifestation der Acne vulgaris nach mentaler Überförderung. Dermatol Monatsschr 161:499-501.
5. Antczak C, DeMeester I, Bauvois B (2001) Ectopeptidases in pathophysiology. Bioessays 23:251-260.
6. Anttila HS, Reitamo S, Saurat JH (1992) Interleukin 1 immunoreactivity in sebaceous glands. Br J Dermatol 127:585-588.
7. Aubin F (2003) Mechanisms involved in ultraviolet lightinduced immunosuppression. Eur J Dermatol 13.515-523.
8. Baldwin HE (2002) The interaction between acne vulgaris and the psyche. Cutis 70:133-139.
9. Bhardwaj R, Becher K, Mahnke M, Hartmeyer T, Schwarz T, Sholzen T, Luger TA (1997) Evidence for the differential expression of the functional alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor MC-1 on human monocytes. J Immunol 158:3378-3384.
10. Boehm KD, Yun JK, Strohl KP, Elmets CA (1995) Messenger RNAs for the multifunctional cytokines interleukin- 1 alpha, interleukin-1 beta and tumor necrosis factor- alpha are present in adnexal tissues and in dermis of normal human skin. Exp Dermatol 4:335-341.
11. Böhm M, Luger TA (2000) The role of melanocortins in skin homeostasis. Horm Res 54:287-293.
12. Böhm M, Metze D, Schulte U, Becher E, Luger T, Brzoska T (1999) Detection of melanocortin-1 immunoreactivity in human skin cells in culture and in situ. Exp Dermatol 8:453-461.
13. Böhm M, Schiller M, Ständer S, Seltmann H, Li Z, Brzoska T, Metze D, Schiöth HB, Skottner A, Seiffert K, Zouboulis CC, Luger TA (2002) Evidence for expression of melanocortin- 1 receptor in human sebocytes in vitro and in situ. J Invest Dermatol 118:533-539.
14. Böhm M, Li Z, Ottaviani M, Picardo M, Zouboulis CC, Ständer S, Luger TA (2004) Beta-endorphin modulates lipogenesis in human sebocytes. J Invest Dermatol 123:A10.
15. Bornstein SR, Böttner A, Chrousos GP (1999) Knocking out the stress response. Mol Psychiatr 4:403-407.
16. Burnstock G (1971) Fine-structural identification of autonomic nerves and their relation to smooth muscle. Prog Brain Res 34:389-404.
17. Chen W, Kelly MA, Opitz-Araya X, Thomas RE, Low MJ, Cone RD (1997) Exocrine gland dysfunction in MC5-Rdeficient mice: evidence for coordinated regulation of exocrine gland function by melanocortin peptides. Cell 91:789-798.
18. Chiu A, Chon SY, Kimball AB (2003) The response of skin disease to stress: changes in the severity of acne vulgaris as affected by examination stress. Arch Dermatol 139:897-900.
19. Chrousos GP (1998) Stressors, stress, and neuroendocrine integration of the adaptive response The 1997 Hans Selye Memorial Lecture. Ann N Y Acad Sci 30:311-335.
20. Crompton R, Clifton VL, Bisits AT, Read MA, Smith R, Wright MR (2003) Corticotropin-releasing hormone causes vasodilation in human skin via mast cell-dependent pathways. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88:5427-5432.
21. De Meester I, Korom S, Van Damme J, Scharpe S (1999) CD26, let it cut or cut it down. Immunol Today 20:367-375.
22. Ebling FJ (1977) Hormonal control and methods of measuring sebaceous gland activity. J Invest Dermatol 62:161-171.
23. Fimmel S, Schnitger A, Glass E, Seiffert K, Granstein RD, Zouboulis CC (2004) Keratinocyte- and sebocyte-derived factors modify UVB activity on endothelial cells: A possible mechanism for the development of vascular changes in rosacea. J Invest Dermatol Res 122:A3.
24. Fritsch M, Orfanos CE, Zouboulis CC (2001) Sebocytes are the key regulators of androgen homeostasis in human skin. J Invest Dermatol 116:793-800.
25. Gabrilovac J, Cupic B, Breljak D, Zekusic M, Boranic M (2004) Expression of CD13/aminopeptidase N and CD10/neutral endopeptidase on cultured human keratinocytes. Immunol Lett 91:39-47.
26. Ganceviciene R, Marciukaitiene I, Graziene V, Rimkevicius A, Zouboulis CC (2006) New accents in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris. Acta Medica Lituanica 13:83-87.
27. Ganceviciene R, Graziene V, Böhm M, Zouboulis CC (2007) Increased in situ expression of melanocortin-1 receptor in sebaceous glands of lesional skin of patients with acne vulgaris. Exp Dermatol 16:547-552.
28. Getting SJ (2006) Targeting melanocortin receptors as potential novel therapeutics. Pharmacol Ther 111:1-15.
29. Goetz H, Cronen J (1980) Die UV-Lichtempfindlichkeit der Haut bei der Rosacea. Z Hautkr 55:232-236.
30. Goggin N, Enright F, Costigan C, Duff D, Oslizlok P, Wood AE, Watson R (1999) Striae and acne following cardiac surgery in a child. Br J Dermatol 140:734-736.
31. Graham GM, Farrar MD, Cruse-Sawyer JE, Holland KT, Ingham E (2004) Proinflammatory cytokine production by human keratinocytes stimulated with Propionibacterium acnes and P. acnes GroEL. Br J Dermatol 150:421-428.
32. Guerriera M, Parodi A, Cipriani C, Divano C, Rebora A (1982) Flushing in rosacea: A possible mechanism. Arch Dermatol Res 272:311-316.
33. Guy R, Green MR, Kealey T (1996) Modeling acne in vitro. J Invest Dermatol 106:176-182.
34. Hartmeyer M, Sholzen T, Becher E, Bhardwaj R, Schwarz T, Luger T (1997) Human dermal microvascular endothelial cells express the melanocortin receptor type 1 and produce increased levels of IL-8 upon stimulation with alpha-melanocyte- stimulating hormone. J Immunol 159:1930-1937.
35. Hatta N, Dixon C, Ray AJ, Phillips SR, Cunliffe WJ, Dale M, Todd C, Meggit S, Birch-MacHin MA, Rees JL (2001) Expression, candidate gene, and population studies of the melanocortin 5 receptor. J Invest Dermatol 116:564-570.
36. Howell BG, Wang B, Freed I, Mamelak AJ, Watanabe H, Sauder DN (2004) Microarray analysis of UVB-regulated genes in keratinocytes: downregulation of angiogenesis inhibitor thrombospondin-1. J Dermatol Sci 34:185-194.
37. Hunyadi J, Simon M Jr, Kenderessy AS, Dobozy A (1993) Expression of monocyte/macrophage markers (CD13CD14, CD68) on human keratinocytes in healthy and diseased skin. J Dermatol 20:341-345.
38. Ingham E, Eady EA, Goodwin CE, Cove JH, Cunliffe WJ (1992) Proinflammatory levels of interleukin-1 alpha-like bioactivity are present in the majority of open comedones in acne vulgaris. J Invest Dermatol 98:895-901.
39. Ingham E, Walters CE, Eady EA, Cove JH, Kearney JN, Cunliffe WJ (1998) Inflammation in acne vulgaris: failure of skin micro-organisms to modulate keratinocyte interleukin 1 alpha production in vitro. Dermatology 196:86-88.
40. Iwata S, Morimoto C (1999) CD26/dipeptidyl peptidase IV in context. The different roles of a multifunctional ectoenzyme in malignant transformation. J Exp Med 190:301-306.
41. Jeong SK, Hwang SW, Choi SY, An JM, Seo JT, Zouboulis CC, Lee SH (2007) Intracellular calcium mobilization is mediated by melanocortin receptors in SZ95 sebocytes. J Invest Dermatol 127:S72.
42. Jeremy AH, Holland DB, Roberts SG, Thomson KF, Cunliffe WJ (2003) Inflammatory events are involved in acne lesion initiation. J Invest Dermatol 121:20-27.
43. Kligman AM (2004) A personal critique on the state of knowledge of rosacea. Dermatology 208:191-197.
44. Kono M, Nagata H, Umemura S, Kawana S, Yoshiyuki R (2001) In situ expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and proopiomelanocortin (POMC) genes in human skin. FASEB J 15:2297-2299.
45. Koo JY, Smith LL (1991) Psychologic aspects of acne. Pediatr Dermatol 8:185-188.
46. Kosmadaki G, Yaar M, Arble BL, Gilchrest BA (2003) UV induces VEGF through a TNF-alpha independent pathway. FASEB J 17:446-448.
47. Kraus SJ (1970) Stress, acne and skin surface free fatty acids. Psychosom Med 32:503-588.
48. Krause K, Schnitger A, Fimmel S, Glass E, Zouboulis CC (2007) Corticotropin-releasing hormone skin signalling is receptor-mediated and is predominant in the sebaceous glands. Horm Metab Res 39:166-170.
49. Kurkcuoglu N, Alaybeyi F (1991) Substance P immunoreactivity in rosacea. J Am Acad Dermatol 25:725-726.
50. Kurokawa I, Mayer-da-Silva A, Gollnick H, Orfanos CE (1988) Monoclonal antibody labeling for cytokeratins and filaggrin in the human pilosebaceous unit of normal, seborrhoeic and acne skin. J Invest Dermatol 91:566-571.
51. Lee WJ, Jung HD, Lee HJ, Kim B-S, Lee S-J, Kim DW (2008) Influence of substance P on human sebocytes. Arch Dermatol Res 300:311-316.
52. Legat FJ, Griesbacher T, Schicho R, Althuber P, Schuligoi R, Kerl H, Wolf P (2002) Repeated subinflammatory ultraviolet B irradiation increases substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide content and augments mustard oil-induced neurogenic inflammation in the skin of rats. Neurosci Lett 329:309-313.
53. Legat FJ, Jaiani LT, Wolf P, Wang MS, Lang R, Abraham T, Solomon AR, Glass JD, Ansel JC (2004) The role of calcitonin gene-related peptide in cutaneous immunosuppression induced by repeated subinflammatory ultraviolet irradiation exposure. Exp Dermatol 13:242-250.
54. Lendeckel U, Arndt M, Frank K, Wex T, Ansorge S (1999) Role of alanyl aminopeptidase in growth and function of human T cells. Int J Mol Med 4:17-27.
55. Li Z, Ständer S, Luger TA, Zouboulis CC, Böhm M (2003) Expression of opioid receptors in human sebocytes - another link between stress and acne? Exp Dermatol 12:332.
56. Lorenz T, Graham DT, Wolf S (1953) The relation of life stress and emotions to human sebum secretion and to the mechanism of acne vulgaris. J Lab Clin Med 41:11-28.
57. Luger TA (2002) Neuromediators - a crucial component of the skin immune system. J Dermatol Sci 30:87-93.
58. Lytinas M, Kempuraj D, Huang M, Boucher W, Esposito P, Theoharides TC (2003) Acute stress results in skin corticotropin- releasing hormone secretion, mast cell activation and vascular permeability, an effect mimicked by intradermal corticotropin-releasing hormone and inhibited by histamine-1 receptor antagonists. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 130:224-231.
59. Marks R, Beard RJ, Clark ML, Kwok M, Robertson WB (1967) Gastrointestinal observations in rosacea. 1:739-743.
60. Millington GWM (2006) Proopiomelanocortin (POMC): The cutaneous roles of its melanocortin products and receptors. Clin Exp Dermatol 31:407-412.
61. Mountjoy KG, Robbins LS, Mortrud MT, Cone RD (1992) The cloning of a family of genes that encode the melanocortin receptors. Science 257:1248-1251.
62. Murphy GM (2004) Ultraviolet light and rosacea. Cutis 74:32-34.
63. Nagy I, Pivarcsi A, Kis K, Koreck A, Bodai L, McDowell A, Seltmann H, Patrick S, Zouboulis CC, Kemény L (2006) Propionibacterium acnes and lipopolysaccharide induce the expression of antibacterial peptides and proinflammatory cytokines/chemokines in human sebocytes. Microbes Infect 8:2195-2205.
64. Norris JF, Cunliffe WJ (1988) A histological and immunocytochemical study of early acne lesions. Br J Dermatol 118:651-659.
65. Novelli M, Savoia P, Fierro MT, Verrone A, Quaglino P, Bernengo MG (1996) Keratinocytes express dipeptidylpeptidase IV (CD26) in benign and malignant skin diseases. Br J Dermatol 134:1052-1056.
66. Orel L, Simon M, Karlseder J, Bhardwaj R, Trautinger F, Schwarz T, Luger T (1997) Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone downregulates differentiation driven heat shock protein 70 expression in keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 108:401-405.
67. Picardi A, Abeni D (2001) Stressful life events and skin diseases: disentangling evidence from myth. Psychother Psychosom 70:118-136.
68. Pierard-Franchimont C, Quatresooz P, Pierard GE (2003) Incidental control of rosacea by somatostatin. Dermatology 206:249-251.
69. Pivarcsi A, Nagy I, Koreck A, Kis K, Kenderessy-Szabo A, Szell M, Dobozy A, Kemeny L (2005) Microbial compounds induce the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and human defensin-2 in vaginal epithelial cells, Microbes Infect 7:1117-1127.
70. Plewig G, Kligman AM (2000) Acne and rosacea. Springer, Berlin, pp 433-475.
71. Poli F, Dreno B, Verschoore M (2001) An epidemiological study of acne in female adults: results of a survey conducted in France. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 15:541-545.
72. Powell FC (2005) Clinical practice. Rosacea N Engl J Med 352:793-803.
73. Powell FC, Corbally N, Powell D (1993) Substance P and rosacea. J Am Acad Dermatol 28:132-133.
74. Quevedo ME, Slominski A, Pinto W, Wei E, Wortsman J (2001) Pleiotropic effects of corticotropin releasing hormone on normal human skin keratinocytes. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 37:50-54.
75. Rattis FM, Concha M, Dalbiez-Gauthier C, Courtellemont P, Schmitt D, Peguet-Navarro J (1998) Effects of ultraviolet B radiation on human Langerhans cells: functional alteration of CD86 upregulation and induction of apoptotic cell death. J Invest Dermatol 111:373-379.
76. Rebora A (1993) The red face: rosacea. Clin Dermatol 11:225-234.
77. Reinhold D, Bank U, Bühling F, Lendeckel U, Faust J, Neubert K, Ansorge S (1997) Inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV induce secretion of transforming growth factorbeta 1 in PWM-stimulated PBMC and T cells. Immunology 91:354-360.
78. Reinhold D, Vetter RW, Mnich K, Bühling F, Lendeckel U, Born I, Faust J, Neubert K, Gollnick H, Ansorge S (1998) Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DP IV, CD26) is involved in regulation of DNA synthesis in human keratinocytes. FEBS Lett 428:100-104.
79. Reinhold D, Kähne T, Steinbrecher A, Wrenger S, Neubert K, Ansorge S, Bröcke S (2002) The role of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DP IV) enzymatic activity in T cell activation and autoimmunity. Biol Chem 383:1133-1138.
80. Riemann D, Kehlen A, Langner J (1999) CD13 - not just a marker in leukemia typing. Immunol Today 20:83-88.
81. Scholzen T, Armstrong CA, Bunnett NW, Luger TA, Olerud JE, Ansel JC (1998) Neuropeptides in the skin: interactions between the neuroendocrine and the skin immune system. Exp Dermatol 7:81-96.
82. Scholzen TE, Brzoska T, Kalden DH, O'Reilly F, Armstrong CA, Luger TA, Ansel JC (1999) Effects of ultraviolet light on the release of neuropeptides and neuroendocrine hormones in the skin: mediators of photodermatitis and cutaneous inflammation. J Invest Dermatol Symp Proc 4:55-60.
83. Seiffert K, Granstein RD (2002) Neuropeptides and neuroendocrine hormones in ultraviolet radiation-induced immunosuppression. Methods 28:97-103.
84. Seiffert K, Zouboulis CC, Seltmann H, Granstein RD (2000) Expression of neuropeptide receptors by human sebocytes and stimulatory effect of their agonists on cytokine production. Horm Res 53:102.
85. Seiffert K, Fimmel S, Zouboulis CC, Granstein RD (2004) UV-B irradiation differentially affects VEGF production in human microvascular endothelial cells and keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 122:A147.
86. Shuster S, Thody AJ (1974) The control and measurement of sebum secretion. J Invest Dermatol 61:172-190.
87. Singh LK, Boucher W, Pang X, Letourneau R, Seretakis DI, Green M, Theoharis C, Theoharides TC (1999) Potent mast cell degranulation and vascular permeability triggered by urocortin through activation of corticotropin- releasing hormone receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 288:1349-1356.
88. Sleijffers A, Herreilers M, van Loveren H, Garssen J (2003) Ultraviolet B radiation induces upregulation of calcitonin gene-related peptide levels in human Finn chamber skin samples. J Photochem Photobiol B 69:149-152.
89. Slominski A, Wortman J, Luger T, Paus R, Solomon S (2000) Corticotropin releasing hormone and proopiomelanocortin involvement in the cutaneous response to stress. Physiol Rev 80:979-1020.
90. Slominski AT, Wortsman J (2000) Neuroendocrinology of the skin. Endocrin Rev 21:457-487.
91. Slominski AT, Botchkarev V, Choudhry M, Fazal N, Fechner K, Furkert J, Krause E, Roloff B, Sayeed M, Wei E, Zbytek B, Zipper J, Wortsman J, Paus R (1999) Cutaneous expression of CRH and CRH-R Is there a skin stress response system? Ann NY Acad Sci 885:287-311.
92. Stüttgen G (1964) Zentralnerren-system und Talgsekretion. Arch Klin Exp Dermatol 219:795-820.
93. Ten Bokum AM, Hofland LJ, van Hagen PM (2000) Somatostatin and somatostatin receptors in the immune system. Eur Cytokine Network 1:161-176.
94. Theoharides TC, Singh LK, Boucher W, Pang X, Letourneau R, Webster E, Chrousos G (1998) Corticotropinreleasing hormone induces skin mast cell degranulation and increased vascular permeability, a possible explanation for its proinflammatory effects. Endocrinology 139:403-413.
95. Theoharides TC, Donelan JM, Papadopoulou N, Cao J, Kempuraj D, Conti P (2004) Mast cells as targets of corticotropin- releasing factor and related peptides. Trends Pharmacol Sci 25:563-568.
96. Thiboutot D, Sivarajah A, Gilliland K, Cong Z, Clawson G (2000) The melanocortin 5 receptor is expressed in human sebaceous glands and rat preputial cells. J Invest Dermatol 115:614-619.
97. Thielitz A, Bukowska A, Wolke C, Vetter R, Lendeckel U, Wrenger S, Hashimoto Y, Ansorge S, Gollnick H, Reinhold D (2004) Identification of extra- and intracellular alanyl aminopeptidases as new targets to modulate keratinocyte growth and differentiation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 321:795-801.
98. Thielitz A, Reinhold D, Vetter R, Lendeckel U, Kähne T, Bank U, Helmuth M, Neubert K, Faust J, Hartig R, Wrenger S, Zouboulis CC, Ansorge S, Gollnick H (2007) Inhibitors of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DP IV, CD26) and aminopeptidase N (APN, CD13) target major pathogenetic steps in acne initiation. J Invest Dermatol 127:1042-1051.
99. Thody AJ, Shuster S (1989) Control and function of sebaceous glands. Physiol Rev 69:383-416.
100. Toyoda M, Morohashi M (2001) Pathogenesis of acne. Med Electron Microsc 34:29-40.
101. Toyoda M, Morohashi M (2003) New aspects in acne inflammation. Dermatology 206:17-23.
102. Toyoda M, Nakamura M, Morohashi M (2002) Neuropeptides and sebaceous glands. Eur J Dermatol 12:422-427.
103. Toyoda M, Nakamura M, Makino T, Kagoura M, Morohashi M (2002) Sebaceous glands in acne patients express high levels of neutral endopeptidase. Exp Dermatol 11:241-247.
104. Weinstock JV, Elliott D (1998) The substance P and somatostatin interferon-gamma immunoregulatory circuit. Ann N Y Acad Sci 840:532-539.
105. Weinstock JV, Elliott D (2000) The somatostatin immunoregulatory circuit present at sites of chronic inflammation. Eur J Endocrinol 143:S15-S19.
106. Wilkin J (1988) Why is flushing limited to a mostly facial cutaneous distribution. J Am Acad Dermatol 19:309-313.
107. Wilkin JK (1994) Rosacea, Pathophysiology and treatment. Arch Dermatol 130:359-362.
108. Wilkins BW, Chung LH, Tublitz NJ, Wong BJ, Minson CT (2004) Mechanisms of vasoactive intestinal peptide-mediated vasodilation in human skin. J Appl Physiol 97:1291-1298.
109. Wollina U (1996) Rhinophyma - unusual expression of simple-type keratins and S100A in sebocytes and abundance of VIP receptor-positive dermal cells. Histol Histopathol 11:111-115.
110. Wollina U, Abdel-Naser MB, Ganceviciene R, Zouboulis CC (2007) Receptors of eccrine, apocrine and holocrine skin glands. Dermatol Clin 25:577-588.
111. Yano K, Kadoya K, Kajiya K, Hong YK, Detmar M (2005) Ultraviolet B irradiation of human skin induces an angiogenic switch that is mediated by upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor and by downregulation of thrombospondin-1. Br J Dermatol 152:115-121.
112. Zbytek B, Mysliwski A, Slominski A, Wortsman J, Wei E T, Mysliwska J (2002) Corticotropin-releasing hormone affects cytokine production in human HaCaT keratinocytes. Life Sci 70:1013-1021.
113. Zhang L, Anthonavage M, Huang Q, Li W, Eisinger M (2003) Proopiomelanocortin peptides and sebogenesis Ann NY Acad Sci 994:154-161.
114. Zhang L, Li WH, Anthonavage M, Eisinger M (2006) Melanocortin-5 receptor: A marker of human sebocyte differentiation. Peptides 27:413-420.
115. Zouboulis CC (2000) Human skin: An independent peripheral endocrine organ. Horm Res 54:230-242.
116. Zouboulis CC (2001) Is acne vulgaris a genuine inflammatory disease? Dermatology 203:277-279.
117. Zouboulis CC (2004) The human skin as a hormone target and an endocrine gland. Hormones 3:9-26.
118. Zouboulis CC, Böhm M (2004) Neuroendocrine regulation of sebocytes - a pathogenetic link between stress and acne. Exp Dermatol 13(suppl 4):31-35.
119. Zouboulis CC, Xia L, Akamatsu H, Seltmann H, Fritsch M, Hornemann S, Rühl R, Chen W, Nau H, Orfanos CE (1998) The human sebocyte culture model provides new insights into development and management of seborrhoea and acne. Dermatology 196:21-31.
120. Zouboulis CC, Seltmann H, Neitzel H, Orfanos CE (1999) Establishment and characterization of an immortalized human sebaceous gland cell line (SZ95). J Invest Dermatol 113:1011-1020.
121. Zouboulis CC, Seltmann H, Hiroi N, Chen W, Young M, Oeff M, Scherbaum WA, Orfanos CE, McCann SM, Bornstein SR (2002) Corticotropin releasing hormone: An autocrine hormone that promotes lipogenesis in human sebocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99:7148-7153.
122. Zouboulis CC, Eady A, Philpott M, Goldsmith LA, Orfanos C, Cunliffe WJ, Rosenfield R (2005) What is the pathogenesis of acne? Exp Dermatol 14:143-152.