Gene–environment interactions of selected pharmacogenes in arterial hypertension

Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology

Volumn 5, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 677-686

  Bochud, Murielle ^a   Guessous, Idris ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

ACE; blood pressure; caffeine; CYP1A2; CYP3A5; dietary salt intake; environment; MTHFR; pharmacogenes

Indexed keywords

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT;

BLOOD PRESSURE; DRUG EFFECT; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETICS; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LIFESTYLE; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHENOTYPE; REVIEW;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; BLOOD PRESSURE; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; LIFE STYLE; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHENOTYPE; POLYMORPHISM, GENETIC;

EID: 84877673869     PISSN: 17512433     EISSN: 17512441     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/ecp.12.58     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 365 (9455), 217–223 (2005).
2. Bochud M, Bovet P, Elston RC et al. High heritability of ambulatory blood pressure in families of East African descent. Hypertension 45 (3), 445–450 (2005).
3. Levy D, DeStefano AL, Larson MG et al. Evidence for a gene influencing blood pressure on chromosome 17. Genome scan linkage results for longitudinal blood pressure phenotypes in subjects from the framingham heart study. Hypertension 36 (4), 477–483 (2000).
4. Kupper N, Willemsen G, Riese H, Posthuma D, Boomsma DI, de Geus EJ. Heritability of daytime ambulatory blood pressure in an extended twin design. Hypertension 45 (1), 80–85 (2005).
5. Bochud M, Bovet P, Burnier M, Eap CB. CYP3A5 and ABCB1 genes and hypertension. Pharmacogenomics 10 (3), 477–487 (2009).
6. Agerholm-Larsen B, Nordestgaard BG, Tybjaerg-Hansen A. ACE gene polymorphism in cardiovascular disease: meta-analyses of small and large studies in whites. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 20 (2), 484–492 (2000).
7. Ji LD, Zhang LN, Shen P et al. Association of angiotensinogen gene M235T and angiotensin-converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphisms with essential hypertension in Han Chinese population: a meta-analysis. J. Hypertens. 28 (3), 419–428 (2010).
8. Johnson AD, Newton-Cheh C, Chasman DI et al.; Cohorts for Heart and Aging Research in Genomic Epidemiology Consortium; Global BPgen Consortium; Women’s Genome Health Study. Association of hypertension drug target genes with blood pressure and hypertension in 86,588 individuals. Hypertension 57 (5), 903–910 (2011).
9. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Ginocchio G, Petrov V, Saavedra AP, Soubrier F et al. The deletion/insertion polymorphism of the angiotensin converting enzyme gene and cardiovascular-renal risk. J. Hypertens. 15 (12 Pt 2), 1579–1592 (1997).
10. Ehret GB, Munroe PB, Rice KM et al.; International Consortium for Blood Pressure Genome-Wide Association Studies; CARDIoGRAM consortium; CKDGen Consortium; KidneyGen Consortium; EchoGen consortium; CHARGE-HF consortium. Genetic variants in novel pathways influence blood pressure and cardiovascular disease risk. Nature 478 (7367), 103–109 (2011).
11. Newton-Cheh C, Johnson T, Gateva V, Tobin MD, Bochud M, Coin L et al. Genome-wide association study identifies eight loci associated with blood pressure. Nat. Genet. 41 (6), 666–676 (2009).
12. Eap CB, Bochud M, Elston RC et al. CYP3A5 and ABCB1 genes influence blood pressure and response to treatment, and their effect is modified by salt. Hypertension 49 (5), 1007–1014 (2007).
13. Bochud M, Eap CB, Elston RC, Bovet P, Maillard M, Schild L et al. Association of CYP3A5 genotypes with blood pressure and renal function in African families. J. Hypertens. 24 (5), 923–929 (2006).
14. Wang L, McLeod HL, Weinshilboum RM. Genomics and drug response. N. Engl. J. Med. 364 (12), 1144–1153 (2011).
15. Rigat B, Hubert C, Alhenc-Gelas F, Cambien F, Corvol P, Soubrier F. An insertion/deletion polymorphism in the angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene accounting for half the variance of serum enzyme levels. J. Clin. Invest. 86 (4), 1343–1346 (1990).
16. Kato N, Takeuchi F, Tabara Y et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies identifies common variants associated with blood pressure variation in east Asians. Nat. Genet. 43 (6), 531–538 (2011).
17. Padmanabhan S, Melander O, Johnson T et al.; Global BPgen Consortium. Genome-wide association study of blood pressure extremes identifies variant near UMOD associated with hypertension. PLoS Genet. 6 (10), e1001177 (2010).
18. Salvi E, Kutalik Z, Glorioso N et al. Genomewide association study using a high-density single nucleotide polymorphism array and case-control design identifies a novel essential hypertension susceptibility locus in the promoter region of endothelial NO synthase. Hypertension 59 (2), 248–255 (2012).
19. Giner V, Poch E, Bragulat E et al. Renin–angiotensin system genetic polymorphisms and salt sensitivity in essential hypertension. Hypertension 35 (1 Pt 2), 512–517 (2000).
20. Hiraga H, Oshima T, Watanabe M et al. Angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene polymorphism and salt sensitivity in essential hypertension. Hypertension 27 (3 Pt 2), 569–572 (1996).
21. Poch E, González D, Giner V, Bragulat E, Coca A, de La Sierra A. Molecular basis of salt sensitivity in human hypertension. Evaluation of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system gene polymorphisms. Hypertension 38 (5), 1204–1209 (2001).
22. McNamara DM, Holubkov R, Janosko K et al. Pharmacogenetic interactions between b-blocker therapy and the angiotensin-converting enzyme deletion polymorphism in patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation 103 (12), 1644–1648 (2001).
23. Kojima S, Inenaga T, Matsuoka H et al. The association between salt sensitivity of blood pressure and some polymorphic factors. J. Hypertens. 12 (7), 797–801 (1994).
24. Sanada H, Yatabe J, Midorikawa S et al. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms for diagnosis of salt-sensitive hypertension. Clin. Chem. 52 (3), 352–360 (2006).
25. van der Kleij FG, Schmidt A, Navis GJ et al. Angiotensin converting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism and short-term renal response to ACE inhibition: role of sodium status. Kidney Int. Suppl. 63, S23 – S26 (1997).
26. van der Kleij FG, de Jong PE, Henning RH, de Zeeuw D, Navis G. Enhanced responses of blood pressure, renal function, and aldosterone to angiotensin I in the DD genotype are blunted by low sodium intake. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 13 (4), 1025–1033 (2002).
27. Luik PT, Hoogenberg K, Kerstens MN et al. The influence of the ACE (I/D) polymorphism on systemic and renal vascular responses to angiotensins in normotensive, normoalbuminuric Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 46 (8), 1131–1139 (2003).
28. Liu YT, Hao HP, Liu CX, Wang GJ, Xie HG. Drugs as CYP3A probes, inducers, and inhibitors. Drug Metab. Rev. 39 (4), 699–721 (2007).
29. Wilkinson GR. Drug metabolism and variability among patients in drug response. N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (21), 2211–2221 (2005).
30. Givens RC, Lin YS, Dowling AL et al. CYP3A5 genotype predicts renal CYP3A activity and blood pressure in healthy adults. J. Appl. Physiol. 95 (3), 1297–1300 (2003).
31. Bolbrinker J, Seeberg S, Schostak M et al. CYP3A5 genotype-phenotype analysis in the human kidney reveals a strong site-specific expression of CYP3A5 in the proximal tubule in carriers of the CYP3A5*1 allele. Drug Metab. Dispos. 40 (4), 639–641 (2012).
32. Kivistö KT, Niemi M, Schaeffeler E et al. CYP3A5 genotype is associated with diagnosis of hypertension in elderly patients: data from the DEBATE Study. Am. J. Pharmacogenomics 5 (3), 191–195 (2005).
33. Langaee TY, Gong Y, Yarandi HN et al. Association of CYP3A5 polymorphisms with hypertension and antihypertensive response to verapamil. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 81 (3), 386–391 (2007).
34. Ho H, Pinto A, Hall SD et al. Association between the CYP3A5 genotype and blood pressure. Hypertension 45 (2), 294–298 (2005).
35. Fromm MF, Schmidt BM, Pahl A, Jacobi J, Schmieder RE. CYP3A5 genotype is associated with elevated blood pressure. Pharmacogenet. Genomics 15 (10), 737–741 (2005).
36. Xi B, Wang C, Liu L et al. Association of the CYP3A5 polymorphism (6986G>A) with blood pressure and hypertension. Hypertens. Res. 34 (11), 1216–1220 (2011).
37. Lieb W, Bolbrinker J, Döring A et al. No association of the CYP3A5*1 allele with blood pressure and left ventricular mass and geometry: the KORA/MONICA Augsburg echocardiographic substudy. Clin. Sci. 111 (6), 365–372 (2006).
38. Yazdanpanah M, Aulchenko YS, Hofman A et al. Effects of the renin–angiotensin system genes and salt sensitivity genes on blood pressure and atherosclerosis in the total population and patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 56 (7), 1905–1912 (2007).
39. Thompson EE, Kuttab-Boulos H, Witonsky D, Yang L, Roe BA, Di Rienzo A. CYP3A variation and the evolution of salt-sensitivity variants. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75 (6), 1059–1069 (2004).
40. Zhang L, Miyaki K, Wang W, Muramatsu M. CYP3A5 polymorphism and sensitivity of blood pressure to dietary salt in Japanese men. J. Hum. Hypertens. 24 (5), 345–350 (2010).
41. Kreutz R, Zuurman M, Kain S, Bolbrinker J, de Jong PE, Navis G. The role of the cytochrome P450 3A5 enzyme for blood pressure regulation in the general Caucasian population. Pharmacogenet. Genomics 15 (12), 831–837 (2005).
42. Darbar D, Dell’Orto S, Mörike K, Wilkinson GR, Roden DM. Dietary salt increases first-pass elimination of oral quinidine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 61 (3), 292–300 (1997).
43. Darbar D, Fromm MF, Dell’Orto S et al. Modulation by dietary salt of verapamil disposition in humans. Circulation 98 (24), 2702–2708 (1998).
44. Kosuge K, Chuang AI, Uematsu S et al. Discovery of osmosensitive transcriptional regulation of human cytochrome P450 3As by the tonicity-responsive enhancer binding protein (nuclear factor of activated T cells 5). Mol. Pharmacol. 72 (4), 826–837 (2007).
45. Zhou SF, Wang B, Yang LP, Liu JP. Structure, function, regulation and polymorphism and the clinical significance of human cytochrome P450 1A2. Drug Metab. Rev. 42 (2), 268–354 (2010).
46. Landi MT, Sinha R, Lang NP, Kadlubar FF. Human cytochrome P4501A2. IARC Sci. Publ. (148), 173–195 (1999).
47. Gunes A, Dahl ML. Variation in CYP1A2 activity and its clinical implications: influence of environmental factors and genetic polymorphisms. Pharmacogenomics 9 (5), 625–637 (2008).
48. Jiang Z, Dragin N, Jorge-Nebert LF et al. Search for an association between the human CYP1A2 genotype and CYP1A2 metabolic phenotype. Pharmacogenet. Genomics 16 (5), 359–367 (2006).
49. Takeuchi F, Isono M, Katsuya T et al. Blood pressure and hypertension are associated with 7 loci in the Japanese population. Circulation 121 (21), 2302–2309 (2010).
50. Fox ER, Young JH, Li Y et al.; International Consortium for Blood Pressure Genome-wide Association Studies (ICBP-GWAS). Association of genetic variation with systolic and diastolic blood pressure among African Americans: the Candidate Gene Association Resource study. Hum. Mol. Genet. 20 (11), 2273–2284 (2011).
51. Sulem P, Gudbjartsson DF, Geller F et al. Sequence variants at CYP1A1-CYP1A2 and AHR associate with coffee consumption. Hum. Mol. Genet. 20 (10), 2071–2077 (2011).
52. Cornelis MC, Monda KL, Yu K et al. Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies regions on 7p21 (AHR) and 15q24 (CYP1A2) as determinants of habitual caffeine consumption. PLoS Genet. 7 (4), e1002033 (2011).
53. Nussberger J, Mooser V, Maridor G, Juillerat L, Waeber B, Brunner HR. Caffeine-induced diuresis and atrial natriuretic peptides. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 15 (5), 685–691 (1990).
54. Passmore AP, Kondowe GB, Johnston GD. Renal and cardiovascular effects of caffeine: a dose–response study. Clin. Sci. 72 (6), 749–756 (1987).
55. Biaggioni I, Paul S, Puckett A, Arzubiaga C. Caffeine and theophylline as adenosine receptor antagonists in humans. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 258 (2), 588–593 (1991).
56. van Buren M, Bijlsma JA, Boer P, van Rijn HJ, Koomans HA. Natriuretic and hypotensive effect of adenosine-1 blockade in essential hypertension. Hypertension 22 (5), 728–734 (1993).
57. Fredholm BB, IJzerman AP, Jacobson KA, Klotz KN, Linden J. International Union of Pharmacology. XXV. Nomenclature and classification of adenosine receptors. Pharmacol. Rev. 53 (4), 527–552 (2001).
58. Rieg T, Steigele H, Schnermann J, Richter K, Osswald H, Vallon V. Requirement of intact adenosine A1 receptors for the diuretic and natriuretic action of the methylxanthines theophylline and caffeine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 313 (1), 403–409 (2005).
59. Knight RJ, Bowmer CJ, Yates MS. The diuretic action of 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine, a selective A1 adenosine receptor antagonist. Br. J. Pharmacol. 109 (1), 271–277 (1993).
60. Wilcox CS, Welch WJ, Schreiner GF, Belardinelli L. Natriuretic and diuretic actions of a highly selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10 (4), 714–720 (1999).
61. van der Put NM, Gabreëls F, Stevens EM et al. A second common mutation in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase gene: an additional risk factor for neural-tube defects? Am. J. Hum. Genet. 62 (5), 1044–1051 (1998).
62. Brosnan JT. Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: interactions between nutrition, genetics and lifestyle. Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 29 (6), 773–780 (2004).
63. Liu C, Li H, Qi Q et al. Common variants in or near FGF5, CYP17A1 and MTHFR genes are associated with blood pressure and hypertension in Chinese Hans. J. Hypertens. 29 (1), 70–75 (2011).
64. Tomaszewski M, Debiec R, Braund PS et al. Genetic architecture of ambulatory blood pressure in the general population: insights from cardiovascular gene-centric array. Hypertension 56 (6), 1069–1076 (2010).
65. Conen D, Cheng S, Steiner LL, Buring JE, Ridker PM, Zee RY. Association of 77 polymorphisms in 52 candidate genes with blood pressure progression and incident hypertension: the Women’s Genome Health Study. J. Hypertens. 27 (3), 476–483 (2009).
66. Horigan G, McNulty H, Ward M, Strain JJ, Purvis J, Scott JM. Riboflavin lowers blood pressure in cardiovascular disease patients homozygous for the 677C–>T polymorphism in MTHFR. J. Hypertens. 28 (3), 478–486 (2010).
67. Holmes MV, Newcombe P, Hubacek JA et al. Effect modification by population dietary folate on the association between MTHFR genotype, homocysteine, and stroke risk: a meta-analysis of genetic studies and randomised trials. Lancet 378 (9791), 584–594 (2011).
68. Leschziner GD, Andrew T, Pirmohamed M, Johnson MR. ABCB1 genotype and PGP expression, function and therapeutic drug response: a critical review and recommendations for future research. Pharmacogenomics J. 7 (3), 154–179 (2007).
69. Kurland L, Lind L, Melhus H. Using genotyping to predict responses to anti-hypertensive treatment. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 26 (9), 443–447 (2005).
70. Ward AM, Takahashi O, Stevens R, Heneghan C. Home measurement of blood pressure and cardiovascular disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. J. Hypertens. 30 (3), 449–456 (2012).
71. Gwinn M, Guessous I, Khoury MJ. Invited commentary: genes, environment, and hybrid vigor. Am. J. Epidemiol. 170 (6), 703–707 (2009).
72. Guessous I, Gwinn M, Yu W, Yeh J, Clyne M, Khoury MJ. Trends in pharmacogenomic epidemiology: 2001-2007. Public Health Genomics 12 (3), 142–148 (2009).
73. Gupta AK, Poulter NR, Dobson J et al.; ASCOT. Ethnic differences in blood pressure response to first and second-line antihypertensive therapies in patients randomized in the ASCOT Trial. Am. J. Hypertens. 23 (9), 1023–1030 (2010).
74. Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Chapman AB et al. Plasma renin activity predicts blood pressure responses to b-blocker and thiazide diuretic as monotherapy and add-on therapy for hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 23 (9), 1014–1022 (2010).
75. Wright JT Jr, Dunn JK, Cutler JA et al.; ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Outcomes in hypertensive black and nonblack patients treated with chlorthalidone, amlodipine, and lisinopril. JAMA 293 (13), 1595–1608 (2005).
76. Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Chapman AB, Hall WD, Boerwinkle E. Antihypertensive pharmacogenetics: getting the right drug into the right patient. J. Hypertens. 19 (1), 1–11 (2001).
77. Arnett DK, Claas SA, Lynch AI. Has pharmacogenetics brought us closer to ‘personalized medicine’ for initial drug treatment of hypertension? Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 24 (4), 333–339 (2009).
78. Koopmans RP, Insel PA, Michel MC. Pharmacogenetics of hypertension treatment: a structured review. Pharmacogenetics 13 (12), 705–713 (2003).
79. Cusi D, Barlassina C, Azzani T et al. Polymorphisms of a-adducin and salt sensitivity in patients with essential hypertension. Lancet 349 (9062), 1353–1357 (1997).
80. Glorioso N, Manunta P, Filigheddu F et al. The role of Α-adducin polymorphism in blood pressure and sodium handling regulation may not be excluded by a negative association study. Hypertension 34 (4 Pt 1), 649–654 (1999).
81. Sciarrone MT, Stella P, Barlassina C et al. ACE and Α-adducin polymorphism as markers of individual response to diuretic therapy. Hypertension 41 (3), 398–403 (2003).
82. Turner ST, Schwartz GL, Chapman AB, Boerwinkle E. C825T polymorphism of the G protein b(3)-subunit and antihypertensive response to a thiazide diuretic. Hypertension 37 (2 Part 2), 739–743 (2001).
83. Manunta P, Lavery G, Lanzani C et al. Physiological interaction between Α-adducin and WNK1-NEDD4L pathways on sodium-related blood pressure regulation. Hypertension 52 (2), 366–372 (2008).
84. Johnson JA, Cavallari LH, Beitelshees AL, Lewis JP, Shuldiner AR, Roden DM. Pharmacogenomics: application to the management of cardiovascular disease. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 90 (4), 519–531 (2011).
85. Lynch AI, Boerwinkle E, Davis BR et al. Pharmacogenetic association of the NPPA T2238C genetic variant with cardiovascular disease outcomes in patients with hypertension. JAMA 299 (3), 296–307 (2008).
86. Turner ST, Bailey KR, Fridley BL et al. Genomic association analysis suggests chromosome 12 locus influencing antihypertensive response to thiazide diuretic. Hypertension 52 (2), 359–365 (2008).
87. Hingorani AD, Jia H, Stevens PA, Hopper R, Dickerson JE, Brown MJ. Renin–angiotensin system gene polymorphisms influence blood pressure and the response to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition. J. Hypertens. 13 (12 Pt 2), 1602–1609 (1995).
88. Schelleman H, Klungel OH, Witteman JC et al. Interaction between polymorphisms in the renin–angiotensin system and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or b-blocker use and the risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. Pharmacogenomics J. 8 (6), 400–407 (2008).
89. Kurland L, Melhus H, Karlsson J et al.; Swedish Irbesartan Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Investigation versus Atenolol (SILVHIA) Trial. Angiotensin converting enzyme gene polymorphism predicts blood pressure response to angiotensin II receptor type 1 antagonist treatment in hypertensive patients. J. Hypertens. 19 (10), 1783–1787 (2001).
90. Jia H, Hingorani AD, Sharma P et al. Association of the G(s)Α gene with essential hypertension and response to b-blockade. Hypertension 34 (1), 8–14 (1999).
91. Lemaitre RN, Heckbert SR, Sotoodehnia N et al. b1- and b2-adrenergic receptor gene variation, b-blocker use and risk of myocardial infarction and stroke. Am. J. Hypertens. 21 (3), 290–296 (2008).
92. Kelley-Hedgepeth A, Peter I, Kip K et al. The protective effect of KCNMB1 E65K against hypertension is restricted to blood pressure treatment with b-blockade. J. Hum. Hypertens. 22 (7), 512–515 (2008).
93. Liu J, Liu ZQ, Yu BN et al. b1-Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms influence the response to metoprolol monotherapy in patients with essential hypertension. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 80 (1), 23–32 (2006).
94. Karlsson J, Lind L, Hallberg P et al. b1-Adrenergic receptor gene polymorphisms and response to b1-adrenergic receptor blockade in patients with essential hypertension. Clin. Cardiol. 27 (6), 347–350 (2004).
95. Liu J, Liu ZQ, Tan ZR et al. Gly389Arg polymorphism of b1-adrenergic receptor is associated with the cardiovascular response to metoprolol. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 74 (4), 372–379 (2003).
96. Johnson JA, Zineh I, Puckett BJ, McGorray SP, Yarandi HN, Pauly DF. b1-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms and antihypertensive response to metoprolol. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 74 (1), 44–52 (2003).
97. Beitelshees AL, Gong Y, Wang D et al.; INVEST Investigators. KCNMB1 genotype influences response to verapamil SR and adverse outcomes in the INternational VErapamil SR/Trandolapril STudy (INVEST). Pharmacogenet. Genomics 17 (9), 719–729 (2007).
98. Beitelshees AL, Navare H, Wang D et al. CACNA1C gene polymorphisms, cardiovascular disease outcomes, and treatment response. Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet. 2 (4), 362–370 (2009).
99. Psaty BM, Smith NL, Heckbert SR et al. Diuretic therapy, the Α-adducin gene variant, and the risk of myocardial infarction or stroke in persons with treated hypertension. JAMA 287 (13), 1680–1689 (2002).
100. Kurland L, Melhus H, Karlsson J et al. Polymorphisms in the angiotensinogen and angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene are related to change in left ventricular mass during antihypertensive treatment: results from the Swedish Irbesartan Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Investigation versus Atenolol (SILVHIA) trial. J. Hypertens. 20 (4), 657–663 (2002).
101. Pacanowski MA, Gong Y, Cooper-Dehoff RM et al.; INVEST Investigators. b-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphisms and b-blocker treatment outcomes in hypertension. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 84 (6), 715–721 (2008).
102. Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN. US trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, 1988-2008. JAMA 303 (20), 2043–2050 (2010).
103. Campo C, Segura J, Ruilope LM. Factors influencing the systolic blood pressure response to drug therapy. J. Clin. Hypertens. (Greenwich) 4 (1), 35–40 (2002).
104. Lazarou J, Pomeranz BH, Corey PN. Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 279 (15), 1200–1205 (1998).
105. Shepherd G, Mohorn P, Yacoub K, May DW. Adverse drug reaction deaths reported in United States vital statistics, 1999-2006. Ann. Pharmacother. 46 (2), 169–175 (2012).
106. McDowell SE, Coleman JJ, Ferner RE. Systematic review and meta-analysis of ethnic differences in risks of adverse reactions to drugs used in cardiovascular medicine. BMJ 332 (7551), 1177–1181 (2006).
107. Holmes MV, Shah T, Vickery C, Smeeth L, Hingorani AD, Casas JP. Fulfilling the promise of personalized medicine? Systematic review and field synopsis of pharmacogenetic studies. PloS ONE. 4 (12), e7960 (2009).
108. McManus RJ, Caulfield M, Williams B. NICE hypertension guideline 2011: evidence based evolution. BMJ 344, e181 (2012).
109. Mancia G, Laurent S, Agabiti-Rosei E et al.; European Society of Hypertension. Reappraisal of European guidelines on hypertension management: a European Society of Hypertension Task Force document. J. Hypertens. 27 (11), 2121–2158 (2009).
110. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ. Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147 randomised trials in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ 338, b1665 (2009).
111. Yusuf S, Pais P, Afzal R et al.; Indian Polycap Study (TIPS). Effects of a polypill (Polycap) on risk factors in middle-aged individuals without cardiovascular disease (TIPS): a phase II, double-blind, randomised trial. Lancet 373 (9672), 1341–1351 (2009).
112. Guessous I, Bochud M, Theler JM, Gaspoz JM, Pechère-Bertschi A. 1999-2009 Trends in prevalence, unawareness, treatment and control of hypertension in Geneva, Switzerland. PLoS ONE 7 (6), e39877 (2012).
113. Veenstra D, Burke W. Pharmacogenomics and public health. Public Health Genomics 12 (3), 131–133 (2009).
114. Roses AD. Pharmacogenetics in drug discovery and development: a translational perspective. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 7 (10), 807–817 (2008).
115. Guessous I, Gwinn M, Khoury MJ. Genome-wide association studies in pharmacogenomics: untapped potential for translation. Genome Med. 1 (4), 46 (2009).