Current and future options for the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion

Expert Opinion on Medical Diagnostics

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 275-287

  Rodriguez Panadero, Francisco ^a,b,c   Romero Romero, Beatriz ^a,b  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO VIRGEN DEL ROCÍO   (Spain)

^b Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla   (Spain)

^c INSTITUTO DE SALUD CARLOS III   (Spain)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Diagnosis; Imaging; Malignant pleural effusion; Mesothelioma; Pleural biopsy; Thoracoscopy

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE DEAMINASE; ASBESTOS; FIBULIN; LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE; MESOTHELIN; TELOMERASE; BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

CELL COUNT; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CYTODIAGNOSIS; CYTOLOGY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; ECHOGRAPHY; FALSE POSITIVE RESULT; FLOW CYTOMETRY; FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION; FOLLOW UP; GENE EXPRESSION; GRAM STAINING; HUMAN; IMMUNOCYTOCHEMISTRY; LUNG ADENOCARCINOMA; LUNG CANCER; LUNG PARENCHYMA; MEDLINE; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NEEDLE BIOPSY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PALLIATIVE THERAPY; PLEURA BIOPSY; PLEURA EFFUSION; PLEURA FLUID; PLEURA MESOTHELIOMA; PLEURA THICKENING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREDICTIVE VALUE; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RECEIVER OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; THORACOSCOPY; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TUBERCULOUS PLEURISY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS; NANOMEDICINE; PLEURAL EFFUSION, MALIGNANT; PROCEDURES;

BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; HUMANS; MOLECULAR DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES; NANOMEDICINE; PLEURAL EFFUSION, MALIGNANT;

EID: 84876852205     PISSN: 17530059     EISSN: 17530067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/17530059.2013.786038     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. Roviaro GC, Varoli F, Rebuffat C, et al. Videothoracoscopic staging and treatment of lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 1995;59:971-4
2. Loscertales J, Jimenez-Merchan R, Congregado M, et al. Video-assisted surgery for lung cancer. State of the art and personal experience. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 2009;17:313-26
3. Shim SS, Lee KS, Kim BT, et al. Integrated PET/CT and the dry pleural dissemination of peripheral adenocarcinoma of the lung. Diagnostic implications. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2006;30:70-6
4. Peto J, Decarli A, La Vecchia C, et al. The European mesothelioma epidemic. Br J Cancer 1999;79(3-4):666-72
5. Meyer PC. Metastatic carcinoma of the pleura. Thorax 1966;21:437-43
6. Rodriguez Panadero F, Borderas Naranjo F, Lopez Mejias J. Lymphatic mediastinal blockade as cause of pleural effusion. Med Clin (Barc) 1987;89:17:725-7
7. Light RW, Hamm H. Malignant pleural effusion: would the real cause please stand up? Eur Respir J 1997;10:1701-2
8. Sahn SA. Pleural diseases related to metastatic malignancies. Eur Respir J 1997;10:1907-13
9. Rodriguez Panadero F, Borderas Naranjo F, Lopez Mejias J. Benign pleural effusions in cancer patients. Frequency and etiopathogenic mechanism in a series of autopsy cases. Rev Clin Esp 1988;183:311-12
10. Froudarakis ME. Diagnostic work-up of pleural effusions. Respiration 2008;75(1):4-13
11. Lombardi G, Zustovich F, Nicoletto MO, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of malignant pleural effusion: a systematic literature review and new approaches. Am J Clin Oncol 2010;33(4):420-3
12. Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N; BTS Pleural Guideline Group. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: british Thoracic Society Pleural Disease Guideline 2010. Thorax 2010;65(Suppl 2):ii4-17
13. Evans AL, Gleeson FV. Radiology in pleural disease: state of the art. Respirology 2004;9(3):300-12
14. Helm EJ, Matin TN, Gleeson FV. Imaging of the pleura. J Magn Reson Imaging 2010;32(6):1275-86
15. Gill RR. Imaging of mesothelioma. Recent Results Cancer Res 2011;189:27-43
16. Qureshi NR, Rahman NM, Gleeson FV. Thoracic ultrasound in the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion. Thorax 2009;64:139-43
17. Rahman NM, Singanayagam A, Davies HE, et al. Diagnostic accuracy, safety and utilisation of respiratory physician-delivered thoracic ultrasound. Thorax 2010;65(5):449-53
18. Koegelenberg CF, von Groote-Bidlingmaier F, Bolliger CT. Transthoracic ultrasonography for the respiratory physician. Respiration 2012;84(4):337-50
19. Chira R, Chira A, Mircea PA. Thoracic wall ultrasonography -normal and pathological findings. Pictorial essay. Med Ultrason 2011;13(3):228-33
20. Villena Garrido MV. Pleural ultrasound applications. Arch Bronconeumol 2012;48(8):265-6
21. Lichtenstein D, Hulot JS, Rabiller A, et al. Feasibility and safety of ultrasound-aided thoracentesis in mechanically ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med 1999;25:955-8
22. Sartori S, Tombesi P, Tassinari D, et al. Sonographically guided small-bore chest tubes and sonographic monitoring for rapid sclerotheraphy of recurrent malignant pleural effusions. J Ultrasound Med 2004;23:1171-6
23. Medford ARL. The utility of thoracic ultrasound before local anesthetic videoassisted thoracoscopy in patients with suspected pleural malignancy. J Clin Ultrasound 2010;38:222-5
24. Cassanelli N, Caroli G, Dolci G, et al. Accuracy of transthoracic ultrasound for the detection of pleural adhesions. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2012;42(5):813-18
25. Biegler N, McBeth PB, Tevez-Molina MC, et al. Just-in-time cost-effective off-the-shelf remote telementoring of paramedical personnel in bedside lung sonography. A technical case study. Telemed J E Health 2012;18(10):807-9
26. Zhou H, Tamura T, Kusaka Y, et al. Development of a guideline on reading CT images of malignant pleural mesothelioma and selection of the reference CT films. Eur J Radiol 2012;81(12):4203-10
27. Maskell NA, Gleeson FV, Davies RJ. Standard pleural biopsy versus CT-guided cutting-needle biopsy for diagnosis of malignant disease in pleural effusions: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361(9366):1326-30
28. Metintas M, Ak G, Dundar E, et al. Medical thoracoscopy vs CT Scan-guided Abrams pleural needle biopsy for diagnosis of patients with pleural effusion. Chest 2010;137(6):1362-8
29. Hoppe H, Walder B, Sonnenschein M, et al. Multidetector CT virtual bronchoscopy to grade tracheobronchial stenosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2002;178(5):1195-200
30. Sundarakumar DK, Bhalla AS, Sharma R, et al. Multidetector CT evaluation of central airways stenoses: comparison of virtual bronchoscopy, minimal-intensity projection, and multiplanar reformatted images. Indian J Radiol Imaging 2011;21(3):191-4
31. Carette MF, Chabchoub H, Tassart M, et al. Virtual pleuroscopy of diaphragmatic pleura: myth or reality?. [Article in French]. Rev Pneumol Clin 2008;64(1):15-19
32. Morita Y, Takase K, Yamada T, et al. Virtual CT thoracoscopy: preoperative simulation for thoracoscopic surgery of esophageal cancer. Abdom Imaging 2007;32(6):679-87
33. Yildirim D, Tamam M, Sanli Y, et al. Virtual bronchoscopy using FDG-PET/ CT images for the evaluation of lung cancer. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2012;16(14):1951-60
34. Letovanec I, Allenbach G, Mihaescu A, et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose PET/CT findings in pleural effusions of patients with known cancer. A cytopathological correlation. Nuklearmedizin 2012;51(5):186-93
35. Kim BS, Kim IJ, Kim SJ, et al. Predictive value of F-18 FDG PET/CT for malignant pleural effusion in non-small cell lung cancer patients. Onkologie 2011;34(6):298-303
36. Alkhawaldeh K, Biersack HJ, Henke A, Ezziddin S. Impact of dual-time-point F-18 FDG PET/CT in the assessment of pleural effusion in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. Clin Nucl Med 2011;36(6):423-8
37. Orki A, Akin O, Tasci AE, et al. The role of positron emission tomography/ computed tomography in the diagnosis of pleural diseases. Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2009;57(4):217-21
38. Kwek BH, Aquino SL, Fischman AJ. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and CT after talc pleurodesis. Chest 2004;125(6):2356-60
39. Wilcox BE, Subramaniam RM, Peller PJ, et al. Utility of integrated computed tomography-positron emission tomography for selection of operable malignant pleural mesothelioma. Clin Lung Cancer 2009;10(4):244-8
40. Razek AA. Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging of chest tumors. Cancer Imaging 2012;12:452-63
41. Gaertner FC, Furst S, Schwaiger M. PET/MR: a paradigm shift. Cancer Imaging 2013;13(1):3652
42. Antony VB, Loddenkemper R, Astoul P, et al. Management of malignant pleural effusions. Eur Respir J 2001;18(2):402-19
43. Sahn SA. Getting the most from pleural fluid analysis. Respirology 2012;17:270-7
44. Moltyaner Y, Miletin MS, Grossman RF. Transudative pleural effusions. False reassurance against malignancy. Chest 2000;118:885
45. Fernandez C, Martin C, Aranda I, Romero S. Malignant transient pleural transudate: a sign of early lymphatic tumoral obstruction. Respiration 2000;67:333-6
46. Assi Z, Caruso JL, Herndon J, Patz EF Jr. Cytologically proved malignant pleural effusions. Distribution of transudates and exudates. Chest 1998;113:1302-4
47. Villena V, Lopez-Encuentra A, Garcia-Lujan R, et al. Clinical implications of appearance of pleural fluid at thoracentesis. Chest 2004;125:156-9
48. Krenke R, Nasilowski J, Korczynski P, et al. Incidence and aetiology of eosinophilic pleural effusion. Eur Respir J 2009;34:1111-17
49. Porcel JM, Esquerda A, Bielsa S. Diagnostic performance of adenosine deaminase activity in pleural fluid: a single-center experience with over 2100 consecutive patients. Eur J Intern Med 2010;21(5):419-23
50. Rodriguez-Panadero F. Medical thoracoscopy. Respiration 2008;76(4):363-72
51. Segal A, Sterrett GF, Frost FA, et al. A diagnosis of malignant pleural mesothelioma can be made by effusion cytology: results of a 20 year audit. Pathology 2013;45(1):44-8
52. Porcel JM. Pearls and myths in pleural fluid analysis. Respirology 2011;16(1):44-52
53. Swiderek J, Morcos S, Donthireddy V, et al. Prospective study to determine the volume of pleural fluid required to diagnose malignancy. Chest 2010;137(1):68-73
54. Metzgeroth G, Kuhn C, Schultheis B, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of cytology and immunocytology in carcinomatous effusions. Cytopathology 2008;19:205-11
55. Su XY, Li GD, Liu WP, et al. Cytological differential diagnosis among adenocarcinoma, epithelial mesothelioma, and reactive mesothelial cells in serous effusions by immunocytochemistry. Diagn Cytopathol 2011;39(12):900-8
56. Scherpereel A, Astoul P, Baas P, et al. Guidelines of the European Respiratory Society and the European Society of Thoracic Surgeons for the management of malignant pleural mesothelioma. Eur Respir J 2010;35:479-95
57. Pomjanski N, Grote HJ, Doganay P, et al. Immunocytochemical identification of carcinomas of unknown primary in serous effusions. Diagn Cytopathol 2005;33:309-15
58. Westfall DE, Fan X, Marchevsky AM. Evidence-based guidelines to optimize the selection of antibody panels in cytopathology: pleural effusions with malignant epithelioid cells. Diagn Cytopathol 2010;38(1):9-14 153
59. Tsai TH, Wu SG, Chang YL, et al. Effusion immunocytochemistry as an alternative approach for the selection of first-line targeted therapy in advanced lung adenocarcinoma. J Thorac Oncol 2012;7(6):993-1000
60. Ninomiya K, Ohi S, Tabei I, et al. Establishment and characterization of a cell line (BTIC) including HER-2-positive cells derived from pleural effusion of recurrent breast invasive ductal carcinoma, scirrhous type. Hum Cell 2007;20(3):85-90
61. Keklik M, Sivgin S, Pala C, et al. Flow cytometry method as a diagnostic tool for pleural fluid involvement in a patient with multiple myeloma. Mediterr J Hematol Infect Dis 2012;4(1):e2012063
62. Kentrou NA, Tsagarakis NJ, Tzanetou K, et al. An improved flow cytometric assay for detection and discrimination between malignant cells and atypical mesothelial cells, in serous cavity effusions. Cytometry B Clin Cytom 2011;80(5):324-34
63. Walts AE, Marchevsky AM. Low cost-effectiveness of CD3/CD20 immunostains for initial triage of lymphoid-rich effusions: an evidence-based review of the utility of these stains in selecting cases for full hematopathologic workup. Diagn Cytopathol 2012;40(7):565-9
64. Adusumilli PS, Gholami S, Chun YS, et al. Fluorescence-assisted cytological testing (FACT): ex vivo viral method for enhancing detection of rare cancer cells in body fluids. Mol Med 2011;17(7-8):628-34
65. Krishan A, Ganjei-Azar P, Hamelik R, et al. Flow immunocytochemistry of marker expression in cells from body cavity fluids. Cytometry A 2010;77(2):132-43
66. Saliba AE, Saias L, Psychari E, et al. Microfluidic sorting and multimodal typing of cancer cells in self-assembled magnetic arrays. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010;107(33):14524-9
67. Mohanty SK, Dey P. Serous effusions: diagnosis of malignancy beyond cytomorphology. An analytic review. Postgrad Med J 2003;79(936):569-74
68. Froudarakis ME. Pleural effusion in lung cancer: more questions than answers. Respiration 2012;83(5):367-76
69. Stathopoulos GT. Translational advances in pleural malignancies. Respirology 2011;16(1):53-63
70. Han J, Cao S, Zhang K, et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization as adjunct to cytology improves the diagnosis and directs estimation of prognosis of malignant pleural effusions. J Cardiothorac Surg 2012;7:121
71. Flores-Staino C, Darai-Ramqvist E, Dobra K, Hjerpe A. Adaptation of a commercial fluorescent in situ hybridization test to the diagnosis of malignant cells in effusions. Lung Cancer 2010;68(1):39-43
72. Savic S, Franco N, Grilli B, et al. Fluorescence in situ hybridization in the definitive diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma in effusion cytology. Chest 2010;138(1):137-44
73. Dikmen G, Dikmen E, Kara M, et al. Diagnostic implications of telomerase activity in pleural effusions. Eur Respir J 2003;22(3):422-6
74. Maneechotesuwan K, Lertworawiwat A, Tscheikuna J, Wamanuttajinda V. Comparison of telomerase activity between malignant and tuberculous pleural effusions. J Med Assoc Thai 2006;89(Suppl 5):S46-54
75. Hansson M, Zendehrokh N, Ohyashiki J, et al. Telomerase activity in effusions: a comparison between telomere repeat amplification protocol in situ and conventional telomere repeat amplification protocol assay. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2008;132(12):1896-902
76. Shu J, Sun GY, Liu AP, Liu J. Diagnostic accuracy of human telomerase reverse transcriptase mRNA in malignant pleural effusions: a preliminary report for in situ hybridization detection. Clin Chim Acta 2007;381(2):131-5
77. Lee WY. Limitations of detection of malignancy in pleural effusions using ELISA-based TRAP assay: comparison with cytological examination. Cytopathology 2005;16(5):227-32
78. Zendehrokh N, Dejmek A. Telomere repeat amplification protocol (TRAP) in situ reveals telomerase activity in three cell types in effusions: malignant cells, proliferative mesothelial cells, and lymphocytes. Mod Pathol 2005;18(2):189-96
79. Shen YC, Chen ZN, Yang T, et al. Telomerase activity assay for the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion: a meta-analysis. Exp Ther Med 2012;4(3):487-92
80. Porcel JM, Vives M, Esquerda A, et al. Use of a panel of tumor markers (carcinoembryonic antigen, cancer antigen 125, carbohydrate antigen 15-3, and cytokeratin 19 fragments) in pleural fluid for the differential diagnosis of benign and malignant effusions. Chest 2004;126(6):1757-63
81. Gueugnon F, Leclercq S, Blanquart C, et al. Identification of novel markers for the diagnosis of malignant pleural mesothelioma. Am J Pathol 2011;178:1033-42
82. Benjamin H, Lebanony D, Rosenwald S, et al. A diagnostic assay based on microRNA expression accurately identifies malignant pleural mesothelioma. J Mol Diagn 2010;12:771-9
83. Ostroff RM, Mehan MR, Stewart A, et al. Early detection of malignant pleural mesothelioma in asbestos-exposed individuals with a noninvasive proteomics-based surveillance tool. PLoS One 2012;7(10):e46091
84. Davies HE, Sadler RS, Bielsa S, et al. Clinical impact and reliability of pleural fluid mesothelin in undiagnosed pleural effusions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;180(5):437-44
85. Hollevoet K, Reitsma JB, Creaney J, et al. Serum mesothelin for diagnosing malignant pleural mesothelioma: an individual patient data meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol 2012;30(13):1541-9
86. Creaney J, Francis RJ, Dick IM, et al. Serum soluble mesothelin concentrations in malignant pleural mesothelioma: relationship to tumour volume, clinical stage and changes in tumour burden. Clin Cancer Res 2011;17:1181-9
87. Grigoriu BD, Chahine B, Vachani A, et al. Kinetics of soluble mesothelin in patients with malignant pleural mesothelioma during treatment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;179:950-4
88. Kelly RJ, Sharon E, Pastan I, Hassan R. Mesothelin-targeted agents in clinical trials and in preclinical development. Mol Cancer Ther 2012;11(3):517-25
89. Macura SL, Hillegass JM, Steinbacher JL, et al. A multifunctional mesothelin antibody-tagged microparticle targets human mesotheliomas. J Histochem Cytochem 2012;60(9):658-74
90. Pass HI, Levin SM, Harbut MR, et al. Fibulin-3 as a blood and effusion biomarker for pleural mesothelioma. N Engl J Med 2012;367(15):1417-27
91. Koegelenberg CF, Diacon AH. Pleural controversy: close needle pleural biopsy or thoracoscopy-which first? Respirology 2011;16(5):738-46
92. Escudero Bueno C, Garcia Clemente M, Cuesta Castro B, et al. Cytologic and bacteriologic analysis of fluid and pleural biopsy specimens with Cope's needle. Study of 414 patients. Arch Inter Med 1990;150:1190-4
93. Canto A, Rivas J, Saumench J, et al. Points to consider when choosing a biopsy method in cases of pleurisy of unknown origin. Chest 1983;84:176-9
94. Stigt JA, Boers JE, Groen HJ. Analysis of "dry" mesothelioma with ultrasound guided biopsies. Lung Cancer 2012;78(3):229-33
95. Rahman NM, Ali NJ, Brown G, et al. Local anaesthetic thoracoscopy: british Thoracic Society Pleural Disease Guideline 2010. Thorax 2010;65(Suppl 2):ii54-60
96. Loddenkemper R. Thoracoscopy: state of the art. Eur Respir J 1998;11:213-21
97. Boutin C, Viallat JR, Cargnino P, Farisse P. Thoracoscopy in malignant pleural effusions. Am Rev Respir Dis 1981;124:588-92
98. Villena V, Lopez Encuentra A, De Pablo A, et al. Ambulatory diagnosis of the patients requiring a pleural biopsy. Study of 100 consecutive cases. Arch Bronconeumol 1997;33(8):395-8
99. Naito T, Satoh H, Ishikawa H, et al. Pleural effusion as a significant prognostic factor in non-small cell lung cancer. Anticancer Res 1997;17:4743-6
100. See KC, Lee P. Advances in the diagnosis of pleural disease in lung cancer. Ther Adv Respir Dis 2011;5(6):409-18
101. Martin Diaz E, Arnau Obrer A, Martorell Cebollada M, Canto Armengod A. La toracocentesis en la evaluacion del cancer de pulmon con derrame pleural. Thoracocentesis for the assessment of lung cancer with pleural effusion. Arch Bronconeumol 2002;38:479-84
102. Rodriguez-Panadero F. Lung cancer and ipsilateral pleural effusion. Ann Oncol 1995;6(Suppl 3):S25-7
103. Roberts JR, Blum MG, Arildsen R, et al. Prospective comparison of radiologic, thoracoscopic, and pathologic staging in patients with early non-small cell lung cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 1999;68:1154-8
104. Sawabata N, Matsumura A, Motohiro A, et al. Malignant minor pleural effusion detected on thoracotomy for patients with non-small cell lung cancer: is tumor resection beneficial for prognosis? Ann Thorac Surg 2002;73:412-15
105. Lee P, Hsu A, Lo C, Colt HG. Prospective evaluation of flex-rigid pleuroscopy for indeterminate pleural effusion: accuracy, safety and outcome. Respirology 2007;12(6):881-6
106. Mohan A, Chandra S, Agarwal D, et al. Utility of semirigid thoracoscopy in the diagnosis of pleural effusions: a systematic review. J Broncholy Interv Pulmonol 2010;17(3):195-201
107. Wrightson JM, Davies HE. Outcome of patients with nonspecific pleuritis at thoracoscopy. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2011;17(4):242-6
108. Servais EL, Suzuki K, Colovos C, et al. An in vivo platform for tumor biomarker assessment. PLoS One 2011;6(10):e26722
109. Chrysanthidis MG, Janssen JP. Autofluorescence videothoracoscopy in exudative pleural effusions: preliminary results. Eur Respir J 2005;26(6):989-92
110. Schonfeld N, Schwarz C, Kollmeier J, et al. Narrow band imaging (NBI) during medical thoracoscopy: first impressions. J Occup Med Toxicol 2009;4:24
111. Ishida A, Ishikawa F, Nakamura M, et al. Narrow band imaging applied to pleuroscopy for the assessment of vascular patterns of the pleura. Respiration 2009;78(4):432-9
112. Pikin O, Filonenko E, Mironenko D, et al. Fluorescence thoracoscopy in the detection of pleural malignancy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2012;41(3):649-52
113. Adusumilli PS, Eisenberg DP, Stiles BM, et al. Virally-directed Fluorescent Imaging (VFI) can Facilitate Endoscopic Staging. Surg Endosc 2006;20(4):628-35
114. Baas P, Triesscheijn M, Burgers S, et al. Fluorescence detection of pleural malignancies using 5-aminolaevulinic acid. Chest 2006;129(3):718-24
115. Vandermeulen L, Makris D, Mordon S, et al. Thoracoscopic findings and pharmacokinetics of inhaled fluorescein in a pig model. Respiration 2010;80(3):228-35
116. Maskell NA. New directions in thoracoscopy: is the future fluorescent? Respiration 2010;80(3):188-9
117. Ashitate Y, Tanaka E, Stockdale A, et al. Near-infrared fluorescence imaging of thoracic duct anatomy and function in open surgery and video-assisted thoracic surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2011;142(1):31-8; e1-2
118. Lee P, Mathur PN, Colt HG. Advances in thoracoscopy: 100 years since Jacobaeus. Respiration 2010;79(3):177-86
119. Froudarakis ME. New challenges in medical thoracoscopy. Respiration 2011;82(2):197-200
120. Servais EL, Colovos C, Kachala SS, Adusumilli PS. Pre-clinical mouse models of primary and metastatic pleural cancers of the lung and breast and the use of bioluminescent imaging to monitor pleural tumor burden. Curr Protoc Pharmacol 2011;Chapter 14:Unit14.21; doi: 1002/0471141755. ph1421s54
121. Stathopoulos GT, Kalomenidis I. Malignant pleural effusion: tumor-host interactions unleashed. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2012;186(6):487-92
122. Stathopoulos GT, Kalomenidis I. Animal models of malignant pleural effusion. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2009;15(4):343-52
123. Kim KU, Wilson SM, Abayasiriwardana KS, et al. A novel in vitro model of human mesothelioma for studying tumor biology and apoptotic resistance. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2005;33(6):541-8
124. Mancini R, Giarnieri E, De Vitis C, et al. Spheres derived from lung adenocarcinoma pleural effusions: molecular characterization and tumor engraftment. PLoS One 2011;6(7):e21320
125. Phung YT, Barbone D, Broaddus VC, Ho M. Rapid generation of in vitro multicellular spheroids for the study of monoclonal antibody therapy. J Cancer 2011;2:507-14
126. Xiang X, Phung Y, Feng M, et al. The development and characterization of a human mesothelioma in vitro 3D model to investigate immunotoxin therapy. PLoS One 2011;6(1):e14640
127. Mahmood U, Weissleder R. Near-infrared optical imaging of proteases in cancer. Mol Cancer Ther 2003;2:489-96
128. Yan X, Zhou Y, Liu S. Optical imaging of tumors with copper-labeled rhodamine derivatives by targeting mitochondria. Theranostics 2012;2(10):988-98
129. Backer MV, Backer JM. Imaging key biomarkers of tumor angiogenesis. Theranostics 2012;2(5):502-15
130. Alberti C. From molecular imaging in preclinical/clinical oncology to theranostic applications in targeted tumor therapy. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2012;16(14):1925-33
131. Zhang H, Tian M, Li E, et al. Molecular imaging-guided theranostics and personalized medicine. J Biomed Biotechnol 2012;2012:747416
132. Josefsen LB, Boyle RW. Unique diagnostic and therapeutic roles of porphyrins and phthalocyanines in photodynamic therapy, imaging and theranostics. Theranostics 2012;2(9):916-66
133. Massoud TF, Gambhir SS. Molecular imaging in living subjects: seeing fundamental biological processes in a new light. Genes Dev 2003;17:545-80
134. Cheng Z, Levi J, Xiong Z, et al. Near-infrared fluorescent deoxyglucose analogue for tumor optical imaging in cell culture and living mice. Bioconj Chem 2006;17:662-9
135. Hama Y, Urano Y, Koyama Y, et al. A target cell-specific activatable fluorescence probe for in vivo molecular imaging of cancer based on a self-quenched Avidin-Rhodamine conjugate. Cancer Res 2007;67:2791-9
136. Longmire MR, Ogawa M, Hama Y, et al. Determination of optimal rhodamine fluorophore for in vivo optical imaging. Bioconj Chem 2008;19:1735-42
137. Ntziachristos V, Bremer C, Weissleder R. Fluorescence imaging with near-infrared light: new technological advances that enable in vivo molecular imaging. Eur Radiol 2003;13:195-208
138. Rabbani1 H, Javanmard SH. Image analysis in in vivo stem cell tracking. Ann Rev Res Biol 2011;1(4):123-42
139. Morawski AM, Winter PM, Crowder KC, et al. Targeted nanoparticles for quantitative imaging of sparse molecular epitopes with MRI. Magn Reson Med 2004;51(3):480-6
140. Koole R, van Schooneveld MM, Hilhorst J. Paramagnetic lipid-coated silica nanoparticles with a fluorescent quantum dot core: a new contrast agent platform for multimodality imaging. Bioconjug Chem 2008;19(12):2471-9
141. Hirsch LR, Stafford RJ, Bankson JA. Nanoshell-mediated near-infrared thermal therapy of tumors under magnetic resonance guidance. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100(23):13549-54