Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010

Thorax

Volumn 65, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2010, Pages

  Hooper, Clare ^a   Lee, Y C Gary ^b   Maskell, Nick ^c  

^a SOUTHMEAD HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b King Edward Hospital   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINO TERMINAL PRO BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; CA 125 ANTIGEN; CA 15-3 ANTIGEN; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; MESOTHELIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; PEPTIDE FRAGMENT; PRO BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE (1 76); PRO-BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE (1-76);

ARTICLE; ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY; BRITISH THORACIC SOCIETY PLEURAL DISEASE GUIDELINE 2010; BRONCHOSCOPY; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DISEASE MARKER; HUMAN; LUNG EMBOLISM; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PLEURA BIOPSY; PLEURA EFFUSION; PLEURA FLUID; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS; THORACOCENTESIS; THORACOSCOPY; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TUBERCULOUS PLEURISY; VIDEO ASSISTED THORACOSCOPIC SURGERY; ADULT; ALGORITHM; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; ECHOGRAPHY; ENDOSCOPIC ECHOGRAPHY; METHODOLOGY; NEEDLE BIOPSY; RADIOGRAPHY;

ADULT; ALGORITHMS; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; BIOPSY, NEEDLE; HUMANS; NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE, BRAIN; PEPTIDE FRAGMENTS; PLEURAL EFFUSION; PLEURAL EFFUSION, MALIGNANT; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED; TUBERCULOSIS, PLEURAL; ULTRASONOGRAPHY, INTERVENTIONAL;

EID: 77956013145     PISSN: 00406376     EISSN: 14683296     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/thx.2010.136978     Document Type: Article

References (163)

1. Sahn SA, Heffner JE. Pleural fluid analysis. In: Light RW, Lee YCG, eds. Textbook of pleural diseases. 2nd edn. London: Arnold Press, 2008:209-26. (4).
2. Yap E, Anderson G, Donald J, et al. Pleural effusion in patients with pulmonary embolism. Respirology 2008;13:832-6. (3).
3. Porcel JM, Madronero AB, Pardina M, et al. Analysis of pleural effusions in acute pulmonary embolism: radiological and pleural fluid data from 230 patients. Respirology 2007;12:234-9. (3).
4. Blackmore CC, Black WC, Dallas RV, et al. Pleural fluid volume estimation: a chest radiograph prediction rule. Acad Radiol 1996;3:103-9. (2+).
5. Ruskin JA, Gurney JW, Thorsen MK, et al. Detection of pleural effusions on supine chest radiographs. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987;148:681-3. (2+).
6. Armstrong P, Wilson AG, Dee P, et al. Imaging of diseases of the chest. 3rd edn, New York: Mosby, 2001. (4).
7. Hirsch JH, Rogers JV, Mack LA. Real-time sonography of pleural opacities. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1981;136:297-301. (2e).
8. Kohan JM, Poe RH, Israel RH, et al. Value of chest ultrasonography versus decubitus roentgenology for thoracentesis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:1124-6. (2+).
9. O'Moore PV, Mueller PR, Simeone JF, et al. Sonographic guidance in diagnostic and therapeutic interventions in the pleural space. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1987;149:1-5. (3).
10. Barnes TW, Morgenthaler TI, Olson EJ, et al. Sonographically guided thoracentesis and rate of pneumothorax. J Clin Ultrasound 2005;33:442-6. (3).
11. Grogan DR, Irwin RS, Channick R, et al. Complications associated with thoracentesis. A prospective randomized study comparing three different methods. Arch Intern Med 1990;150:873-7. (1+).
12. Raptopoulos V, Davis LM, Lee G, et al. Factors affecting the development of pneumothorax associated with thoracentesis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1990;156:917-20. (3).
13. Lipscomb DJ, Flower CDR, Hadfield JW. Ultrsound of the pleura: an assessment of its clinical value. Clin Radiol 1981;32:289-90. (2+).
14. Wu RG, Yuan A, Liaw YS, et al. Image comparison of real-time gray-scale ultrasound and colour Doppler ultrasound for use in diagnosis of minimal pleural effusion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994;150:510-14. (2+).
15. Roch A, Bojan M, Michelet P, et al. Usefulness of ultrasonography in predicting pleural effusions >500 ml in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 2005;127:224-32. (2+).
16. Eibenberger KL, Dock WI, Ammann ME. Quantification of pleural effusions: sonography versus radiography. Radiology 1994;191:681-4. (2++).
17. Kearney SE, Davies CWH, Davies RJO. Computed tomography and ultrasound in parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Radiol 2000;55:542-7. (3).
18. Görg CH, Restrepo I, Schwerk WB. Sonography of malignant pleural effusion. Eur Radiol 1997;7:1195-8. (3).
19. Yang PC, Luh KT, Chang D, et al. Value of sonography in determining the nature of pleural effusion: analysis of 320 cases. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1992;159:29-33. (2++).
20. Qureshi NR, Rahman NM, Gleeson FV. Thoracic ultrasound in the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion. Thorax 2009;64:139-43. (2++).
21. Diacon AH, Brutsche MH, Soler M. Accuracy of pleural puncture sites. A prospective comparison of clinical examination with ultrasound. Chest 2003;123:436-41. (2+).
22. Ferrer A, Osset J, Alegre J, et al. Prospective clinical and microbiological study of pleural effusions. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1999;18:237-41. (2+).
23. Abouzgheib W, Bartter T, Dagher H, et al. A prospective study of the volume of pleural fluid required for accurate diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion. Chest 2009;135:999-1001. (2++).
24. Swiderek J, Marcos S, Donthireddy V, et al. Prospective study to determine the volume of pleural fluid required to diagnose malignancy. Chest 2010;137:68-73. (2++).
25. Manosca F, Schinstine M, Fetsch PA, et al. Diagnostic effects of prolonged storage on fresh effusion samples. Diagn Cytopathol 2007;35:7-11. (2+).
26. Sahn S. Pleural fluid analysis: narrowing the differential diagnosis. Semin Respir Med 1987;9:22-9. (4).
27. Villena V, Lopez-Encuentra A, Garcia-Lujan R, et al. Clinical implications of appearance of pleural fluid at thoracentesis. Chest 2004;125:156-9. (3). (Pubitemid 38114578)
28. Light RW, Erozan YS, Ball WCJ. Cells in pleural fluid. Their value in differential diagnosis. Arch Intern Med 1973;132:854-60. (3).
29. Ali HA, Lippmann M, Mundathaje U, et al. Spontaneous hemothorax. Chest 2008;134:1056-65. (4).
30. Light RW, MacGreggor I, Luchsinger PC, et al. Pleural effusions: the diagnostic separation of transudates and exudates. Ann Intern Med 1972;77:507-13. (2++).
31. Heffner JE, Brown LK, Barbieri CA, et al. Diagnostic value of tests that discriminate between exudative and transudative pleural effusions. Chest 1997;111:970-80. (1+).
32. Romero-Candiera S, Romero-Brufao S, Fernandez C, et al. Is it meaningful to use biochemical parameters to discriminate between transudative and exudative pleural effusions? Chest 2002;122:1524-9. (2++).
33. Romero-Candiera S, Fernandez C, Martin C, et al. Influence of diuretics on the concentration of proteins and other components of pleural transudates in patients with heart failure. Am J Med 2001;110:681-6. (3).
34. Gotsman I, Fridlender Z, Meirovitz A, et al. The evaluation of pleural effusions in patients with heart failure. Am J Med 2001;111:375-8. (3).
35. Porcel JM, Pena JM, Vicente de Vera C. Bayesian analysis using continuous likelihood ratios for identifying pleural exudates. Respir Med 2006;100:1960-5. (2-).
36. Liao H, Na MJ, Dikensoy O, et al. Diagnostic value of pleural fluid N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide levels in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Respirology 2008;13,53-7. (2-).
37. Kolditz M, Halank M, Schiemanck CS, et al. High diagnostic accuracy of NT-proBNP for cardiac origin of pleural effusions. Eur Respir J 2006;28:144-150. (2++).
38. Porcel JM, Chorda J, Cao G, et al. Comparing serum and pleural fluid pro-brain natriuretic peptide (NT- proBNP) levels with pleural-to-serum albumin gradient for the identification of cardiac effusions misclassified by Light's criteria. Respirology 2007;12:654-9. (2++).
39. Gegenhuber A, Mueller T, Dieplinger B, et al. Plasma B-type Natriuretic peptide in patients with pleural effusions. Chest 2005;128:1003-9. (2++).
40. Tomcsanyi J, Nagy E, Somloi M, et al. NT-brain natriuretic peptide levels in pleural fluid distinguish between pleural transudates and exudates. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:753-6. (2++).
41. Porcel JM, Vives M, Cao G, et al. Measurement of Pro-Brain Natriuretic peptide in pleural fluid for the diagnosis of pleural effusions due to heart failure. Am J Med 2004;116:117-20. (2-).
42. Hann CH, Choi JE, Chung JH. Clinical utility of pleural fluid NT-pro Brain Natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in patients with pleural effusions. Intern Med 2008;47:1669-74. (2++).
43. Pettersson T, Riska H. Diagnostic value of total and differential leukocyte counts in pleural effusions. Acta Med Scand 1981;210:129-35. (3).
44. Ansari T, Idell S. Management of undiagnosed persistent pleural effusions. Clin Chest Med 1998;19:407-17. (4).
45. Light RW. Pleural diseases, 3rd edn. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1995. (3).
46. Özkara SK, Turan G, Basyigit I. Clinicopathologic significance of eosinophilic pleural effusions in a population with a high prevalence of tuberculosis and cancer. Acta Cytol 2007;51:773-81. (3).
47. Adelman M, Albelda SM, Gottlieb J, et al. Diagnostic utility of pleural fluid eosinophilia. Am J Med 1984;77:915-20. (3).
48. Wysenbeek AJ, Lahav M, Aelion JA, et al. Eosinophilic pleural effusion: a review of 36 cases. Respiration 1985;48:73-6. (3).
49. Martinez-Garcia MA, Cases-Viedma E, Cordero-Rodriguez PJ, et al. Diagnostic utility of eosinophils in the pleural fluid. Eur Respir J 1999;15:166-9. (3).
50. Good JT Jr, Taryle DA, Maulitz RM, et al. The diagnostic value of pleural fluid pH. Chest 1980;78:55-9. (3).
51. Potts DE, Taryle A, Sahn SA. The glucose-pH relationship in parapneumonic effusions. Arch Intern Med 1978;138:1378-80. (3).
52. Sahn SA, Good JTJ. Pleural fluid pH in malignant effusions. Diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic implications. Ann Intern Med 1988;108:345-9. (2++).
53. Heffner JE, Nietert PJ, Barbieri C. Pleural fluid pH as a predictor of survival for patients with malignant pleural effusions. Chest 2000;117:79-86. (1+).
54. Heffner JE, Brown LK, Barbieri C, et al. Pleural fluid chemical analysis in parapneumonic effusions. A meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:1700-8. (1+).
55. Maskell NA, Gleeson FV, Darby M, et al. Diagnostically significant variations in pleural fluid pH in loculated parapneumonic effusions. Chest 2004;126:2022-4. (3).
56. Rahman NM, Mishra EK, Davies HE, et al. Clinically important factors influencing the diagnostic measurement of pleural fluid pH and glucose. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:483-90. (2++).
57. Emil P, Lesho DO, Bernard J, et al. Is pH paper an acceptable low cost alternative to the blood gas analyser for determining pleural fluid pH? Chest 1997;112:1291-92. (2+).
58. Light RW, Ball WC. Glucose and amylase in pleural effusions. JAMA 1973;225:257-60. (3).
59. Sahn SA. Pathogenesis and clinical features of diseases associated with low pleural fluid glucose. In: Chretien J, Bignon J, Hirsch A, eds. The pleural in health and disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1985:267-85. (4).
60. Sahn SA. The pleura. Am Rev Respir Dis 1988;138:184-234. (4).
61. Joseph J, Viney S, Beck P, et al. A prospective study of amylase-rich pleural effusions with special reference to amylase isoenzyme analysis. Chest 1992;102:1455-9. (3).
62. Sherr HP, Light RW, Merson MH, et al. Origin of pleural fluid amylase in oesophageal rupture. Ann Intern Med 1972;76:985-6. (4).
63. Kramer M. High amylase levels in neoplasm related pleural effusion. Ann Intern Med 1989;110:567-9. (4).
64. Branca P, Rodriguez M, Rogers JT, et al. Routine measurement of pleural fluid amylase is not indicated. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:228-32. (3).
65. Lankisch PG, Droge M, Becher R, et al. Pleural effusions: a new negative prognostic parameter for acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89:1848-51. (3).
66. Inglesias JI, Cobb J, Levey J, et al. Recurrent left pleural effusion in a 44-year-old woman with a history of alcohol abuse. Chest 1996;110:547-49. (3).
67. Salyer WR, Eggleston JC, Erozan YS. Efficacy of pleural needle biopsy and pleural fluid cytopathology in the diagnosis of malignant neoplasm involving the pleura. Chest 1975;67:536-9. (4).
68. Nance KV, Shermer RW, Askin FB. Diagnostic efficacy of pleural biopsy as compared with that of pleural fluid examination. Mod Pathol 1991;4:320-4. (2-).
69. Prakash UB, Reiman HM. Comparison of needle biopsy with cytologic analysis for the evaluation of pleural effusion: analysis of 414 cases. Mayo Clin Proc 1985;60:158-64. (2-).
70. Garcia L. The value of multiple fluid specimens in the cytological diqgnosis of malignancy. Mod Pathol 1994;7:665-8. (3).
71. Dekker A, Bupp PA. Cytology of serous effusions. An investigation into the usefulness of cell blocks versus smears. Am J Clin Pathol 1978;70:855-60. (3).
72. Chandra A, Cross P, Denton K, et al. The BSCC code of practice: exfoliative cytolopathology (excluding gynaecological cytopathology). Cytopathology 2009;20:211-33. (4).
73. Denton K, Giles T, Smith P, et al. Tissue pathways for exfoliative cytology and fine needle aspiration cytology. London: Royal College of Pathologists, 2009. (4).
74. Porcel M, Vives M, Esquerda A, et al. Use of a panel of tumour markers (carcinoembryonic antigen, cancer antigen 125, carbohydrate antigen 15-3 and cytokeratin 19 fragments) in pleural fluid for the differential diagnosis of benign and malignant effusions. Chest 2004;126:1757-63. (2+).
75. Sherpereel A, Grigoriu B, Conti M, et al. Soluble mesothelin-related peptides in the diagnosis of malignant pleural mesothelioma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:1155-60. (2+).
76. Creaney J, Yeoman D, Naumoff L, et al. Soluble mesothelin in effusions: a useful tool for the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma. Thorax 2007;62:569-76. (2++). (Pubitemid 47056881)
77. Creaney J, Van Bruggen I, Segal A, et al. Combined CA125 and mesothelin levels for the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma. Chest 2007;132:1239-46. (2+). (Pubitemid 47620999)
78. Cristaudo A, Foddis R, Vivaldi A, et al. Clinical significance of serum mesothelin in patients with mesothelioma and lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2007;13:5076-81. (2+).
79. Robinson B, Creaney J, Lake R, et al. Mesothelin-family proteins and diagnosis of mesothelioma. Lancet 2003;362:1612-16. (2+).
80. Davies HE, Sadler RS, Bielsa S, et al. The clinical impact and reliability of pleural fluid mesothelin in undiagnosed pleural effusions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009;180:437-44. (2+).
81. Hassan R, Remaley A, Sampson M, et al. Detection and quantitation of serum mesothelin, a tumour marker for patients with mesothelioma and ovarian cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2006;12:447-53. (2-).
82. Traill ZC, Davies RJO, Gleeson FV. Thoracic computed tomography in patients with suspected malignant pleural effusions. Clin Radiol 2001;56:193-6. (2++).
83. Mcloud T, Flower C. Imaging of the pleura: sonography, CT, and MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1991;156:1145-53. (4).
84. Waite RJ, Carbonneau RJ, Balikian JP, et al. Parietal pleural changes in empyema: appearances on CT. Radiology 1990;175:145-50. (3).
85. Leung AN, Muller NL, Miller RR. CT in differential diagnosis of diffuse pleural disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1989;154:487-92. (2-).
86. Scott EM, Marshall TJ, Flower CDR, et al. Diffuse pleural thickening: percutaneous CT-guided cutting needle biopsy. Radiology 1995;194:867-70. (2+).
87. Falaschi F, Battolla L, Mascalchi M, et al. Usefulness of MR signal intensity in distinguishing benign from malignant pleural disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1995;166:963-8. (2+).
88. Knuuttila A, Kivisaari L, Kivisaari A, et al. Evaluation of pleural disease using MR and CT. Acta Radiol 2001;42:502-7. (2+).
89. Geisel FL, Bischoff H, Von Tengg-Kobligk H, et al. Dynamic contrast enhanced MRI of malignant pleural mesothelioma: a feasibility study of non-invasive assessment, therapeutic follow-up, and possible predictor of improved outcome. Chest 2006;129;1570-6. (2+).
90. Duysinx B, Nguyen D, Louis R, et al. Evaluation of pleural disease with 18-Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging. Chest 2004;125:489-93. (2++).
91. Bury TH, Paulus P, Dowlati A, et al. Evaluation of pleural disease with FDG-PET imaging: preliminary report. Thorax 1997;52:187-9. (2++).
92. Kwek BH, Aquino SL, Fischman J. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and CT after talc pleurodesis. Chest 2004;125:2356-60. (3).
93. Steinert HC, Dellea MMS, Burger C, et al. Therapy response evauation in malignant pleural mesothelioma with integrated PET-CT imaging. Lung Cancer 2005;49(Suppl 1):S33-5. (2+).
94. Ceresoli GL, Chiti A, Zucali PA, et al. Early response evaluation in malignant pleural mesothelioma by positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:4587-93. (2++).
95. Francis RJ, Byrne MJ, Van der Schaaf AA, et al. Early prediction of response to chemotherapy and survival in malignant pleural mesothelioma using a novel semiautomated 3-dimensional volume-based analysis of serial 18F-FDG PET scans. J Nucl Med 2007;48:1449-58. (2++).
96. Tomlinson JR. Invasive procedures in the diagnosis of pleural disease. Semin Respir Med 1987;9:30-60. (2+).
97. AdamsRF, Gleeson FV. Percutaneous image-guided cutting needle biopsy of the pleura in the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma. Chest 2001;120:1798-802. (2-).
98. Adams RF, Gleeson FV. Percutaneous image-guided cutting-needle biopsy of the pleura in the presence of a suspected malignant effusion. Radiology 2001;219:510-14. (2+).
99. Maskell NA, Gleeson FV, Davies RJO. Standard pleural biopsy versus CT guided cutting-needle biopsy for the diagnosis of malignant disease in pleural effusions: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003;361:1326-31. (1++).
100. Diacon AH, Van de Wal BW, Wyser C, et al. Diagnostic tools in tuberculous pleurisy: a direct comparative study. Eur Respir J 2003;22:589-91. (2++).
101. Blanc FX, Atassi K, Bignon J, et al. Diagnostic value of medical thoracoscopy in pleural disease: a 6-year retrospective study. Chest 2002;121:1677-83. (2-). 102.
102. Boutin C, Rey F. Thoracoscopy in pleural malignant mesothelioma: a prospective study of 188 consecutive patients. Part 1: Diagnosis. Cancer 1993;72:389-93.(2+). (Pubitemid 23193443)
103. Hansen M, Faurschou P, Clementsen P. Medical thoracoscopy, results and complications in 146 patients: a retrospective study. Respir Med 1998;92:228-32. (2-).
104. Menzies R, Charbonneau M. Thoracoscopy for the diagnosis of pleural disease. Ann Intern Med 1991;114:271-6. (2+).
105. Davidson AC, George RJ, Sheldon CD, et al. Thoracoscopy: assessment of a physician service and comparison of a flexible bronchoscope used as a thoracoscope with a rigid thoracoscope. Thorax 1988;43:327-32. (3).
106. Debeljak A, Kecelj P. Medical thoracoscopy: wxperience with 212 patients. J BUON 2000;5:169-72. (2-).
107. Fielding D, Hopkins P, Serisier D. Frozen section of pleural biopsies at medical thoracoscopy assists in correctly identifying benign disease. Respirology 2005;10:636-42. (3).
108. Fletcher SV, Clark RJ. The Portsmouth thoracoscopy experience, an evaluation of service by retrospective case note analysis. Respir Med 2007;101:1021-5. (3).
109. Janssen JP, Boutin C. Extended thoracoscopy: a biopsy method to be used in case of pleural adhesions. Eur Respir J 1992;5:763-6. (3).
110. Lee P, Hsu A, Lo C, et al. Prospective evaluation of flex-rigid pleuroscopy for indeterminate pleural effusion: accuracy, safety and outcome. Respirology 2007;12:881-6. (2-).
111. Macha HN, Reichle G, von ZD, et al. The role of ultrasound assisted thoracoscopy in the diagnosis of pleural disease. Clinical experience in 687 cases. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1993;7:19-22. (3).
112. McLean AN, Bicknell SR, McAlpine LG, et al. Investigation of pleural effusion: an evaluation of the new Olympus LTF semiflexible thoracofiberscope and comparison with Abram's needle biopsy. Chest 1998;114:150-3. (2-).
113. Munavvar M, Khan MA, Edwards J, et al. The autoclavable semirigid thoracoscope: the way forward in pleural disease? Eur Respir J 2007;29:571-4. (2-).
114. Oldenburg FA Jr, Newhouse MT. Thoracoscopy. A safe, accurate diagnostic procedure using the rigid thoracoscope and local anesthesia. Chest 1979;75:45-50. (2-).
115. Sakuraba M, Masuda K, Hebisawa A, et al. Diagnostic value of thoracoscopic pleural biopsy for pleurisy under local anaesthesia. Aust NZ J Surg 2006;76:722-4. (2-).
116. Schwarz C, Lubbert H, Rahn W, et al. Medical thoracoscopy: hormone receptor content in pleural metastases due to breast cancer. Eur Respir J 2004;24:728-30. (3).
117. Simpson G. Medical thoracoscopy in an Australian regional hospital. Intern Med J 2007;37:267-9. (2-).
118. Smit HJ, Schramel FM, Sutedja TG, et al. Video-assisted thoracoscopy is feasible under local anesthesia. Diagn Ther Endosc 1998;4:177-82. (3).
119. Tassi G, Marchetti G. Minithoracoscopy: a less invasive approach to thoracoscopy. Chest 2003;124:1975-7. (3).
120. Wilsher ML, Veale AG. Medical thoracoscopy in the diagnosis of unexplained pleural effusion. Respirology 1998;3:77-80. (2-).
121. Janssen JP, Ramlal S. The long term follow up of exudative pleural effusion after nondiagnostic thoracoscopy. J Bronchol 2004;11:169-74. (2-).
122. Viskum K, Enk B. Complications of thoracoscopy. Poumon Coeur 1981;37:25-8. (3).
123. Heaton RW, Roberts CM. The role of fibreoptic bronchoscopy in the investigation of pleural effusion. Postgrad Med J 1988;64:581-2. (3).
124. Upham JW, Mitchell CA, Armstrong JG, et al. Investigation of pleural effusion: the role of bronchoscopy. Aust NZ J Med 1992;22:41-3. (3).
125. Feinsilver SH, Barrows AA, Braman SS. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy and pleural effusion of unknown origin. Chest 1986;90:516-19. (3).
126. Chang SC, Perng RP. The role of fiberoptic bronchoscopy in evaluating the causes of pleural effusions. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:855-7. (2+).
127. Bueno EC, Clemente GM, Castro CB, et al. Cytology and bacteriologic analysis of fluid and pleural biopsy specimens with Cope's needle. Study of 414 patients. Arch Intern Med 1990;150:1190-4. (2+).
128. Liang QL, Shi HZ, Wang K, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of adenosine deaminase in tuberculous pleurisy: a meta-analysis. Respir Med 2008;102:744-54. (1+).
129. Zemlin AE, Burgess LJ, Carstens ME, et al. The diagnostic utility of adenosine deaminase isoenzymes in tuberculous pleural effusions. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2009;13:214-20. (2-).
130. Antonangelo L, Vargas FS, Almeida LP, et al. Influence of storage time and temperature on pleural fluid adenosine deaminase determination. Respirology 2006;11:488-92. (3).
131. Greco S, Girardi E, Masciangelo R, et al. Adenosine deaminase and interferon gamma measurements for the diagnosis of tuberculous pleurisy: a meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003;7:777-86. (1+).
132. Losi M, Bossink A, Codecasa L, et al. Use of a T-cell interferon-gamma release assay for the diagnosis of tuberculous pleurisy. Eur Respir J 2007;30:1173-9. (2++).
133. Ariga H, Kawabe Y, Nagai H, et al. Diagnosis of active tuberculous serositis by antigen-specific interferon-gamma response of cavity fluid cells. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:1559-67. (2++).
134. Trajman A, Pai M, Dheda K, et al. Novel tests for diagnosing tuberculous pleural effusion: what works and what does not? Eur Respir J 2008;31:1098-106. (4).
135. Baumann MH, Nolan R, Petrini M, et al. Pleural tuberculosis in the United States: incidence and drug resistance. Chest 2007;131:1125-32. (3).
136. Horler A. The pleural and pulmonary complications of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Intern Med 1959;51:1179-203. (4).
137. Balbir-Gurman A, Yigla M, Mahir AM. Rheumatoid pleural effusion. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2006;35:368-78. (4).
138. Ferguson GC. Cholesterol pleural effusion in rheumatoid lung disease. Thorax 1966;21:577-82. (3, 4).
139. Lillington GA, Carr DT, Mayne JG. Rheumatoid pleurisy with effusion. Arch Intern Med 1971;128:764-8. (3).
140. Hunder GG, McDuffie FC, Huston KA, et al. Pleural fluid complement, complement conversion, and immune complexes in immunologic and non immunologic diseases. J Lab Clin Med 1977;90:971-80. (3).
141. Pettersson T, Klockars M, Hellstrom PE. Chemical and immunological features of pleural effusions: comparison between rheumatoid arthritis and other diseases. Thorax 1982;37:354-61. (2+).
142. Halla JT, Schronhenloher RE, Volanakis JE. Immune complexes and other laboratory features of pleural effusions. Ann Intern Med 1980;92:748-52. (3).
143. Hunninghake GW, Fauci AS. Pulmonary involvement in the collagen vascular diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis 1979;119:471-85. (4).
144. Good JT Jr, King TE, Antony VB, et al. Lupus pleuritis. Clinical features and pleural fluid characteristics with special reference to pleural fluid antinuclear antibodies. Chest 1983;84:714-18. (4).
145. Carr DT. Pleural fluid glucose in systemic lupus erythematosus. Mayo Clin Proc 1970;45:409-12. (3).
146. Wang DY, Yang PC, Yu WL, et al. Serial antinuclear antibodies titre in pleural and pericardial fluid. Eur Respir J 2000;15:1106-10. (2+).
147. Porcel JM, Orid-Ros J, Esquerda A, et al. Antinuclear antibody testing in pleural fluid for the diagnosis of lupus pleuritis. Lupus 2007;16:25-7. (2-).
148. Stein PD, Terrin ML, Hales CA, et al. Clinical, laboratory, roentgenographic, and electrocardiographic findings in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and no pre-existing cardiac or pulmonary disease. Chest 1991;100:598-603. (3).
149. Romero Candeira S, Hernandez Blasco L, Soler MJ, et al. Biochemical and cytological characteristics of pleural effusions secondary to pulmonary embolism. Chest 2002;121:465-9. (3).
150. Doerr CH, Allen MS, Nichols FC, et al. Etiology of chylothorax in 203 patients. Mayo Clin Proc 2005;80:867-70. (3).
151. Hillerdal G. Chyliform(cholesterol) pleural effusion. Chest 1985;88:426-8. (4).
152. Hillerdal G. Chylothorax and pseudochylothorax. Eur Respir J 1997; 10:1150-6. (4).
153. Wrightson JM, Stanton AE, Maskell NA, et al. Pseudochylothorax without pleural thickeningdtime to reconsider pathogenesis? Chest 2009;136:1144-7. (3).
154. Staats BA, Ellefson RD, Budahn LL, et al. The lipoprotein profile of chylous and non-chylous pleural effusions. Mayo Clin Proc 1980;55:700-4. (3).
155. Epler GR, McLoud TC, Gaensler EA. Prevalence and incidence of benign asbestos pleural effusion in a working population. JAMA 1982;247:617-22. (3).
156. Hillerdal G, Ozesmi M. Benign asbestos pleural effusion: 73 exudates in 60 patients. Eur J Respir Dis 1987;71:113-21. (3).
157. Robinson BW, Musk AW. Benign asbestos pleural effusion: diagnosis and course. Thorax 1981;36:896-900. (4).
158. Light RW. Pleural effusions following cardiac injury and coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2001;22:657-64. (4).
159. Light R, Rogers J, Moyers J, et al. Prevalence and clinical course of pleural effusions at 30 days after coronary artery and cardiac surgery. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;166:1567-71. (3).
160. Garcia-Pachon E, Padilla-Navas I. Urinothorax: case report and review of the literature with emphasis on biochemical diagnosis. Respiration 2004;71:533-6. (4).
161. Delvigne A, Rosenburg S. Review of clinical course and treatment of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). Hum Reprod Update 2003;9:77-96. (3).
162. Ceyhan BB, Demiralp E, Celikel T. Analysis of pleural effusions using flow cytometry. Respiration 1996;63:17-24. (2+).
163. Venekamp LN, Velkeniers B, Noppen M. Does 'idiopathic pleuritis' exist? Natural history of non-specific pleuritis diagnosed after thoracoscopy. Respiration 2005;72:74-8. (3).