Thyroid hormone, thyroid hormone receptors, and cancer: A clinical perspective

Endocrine-Related Cancer

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2013, Pages

  Moeller, Lars C ^a   Führer, Dagmar ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DUISBURG ESSEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Avb3; PI3K; Thyroxine; Tyrosine kinase inhibitor

Indexed keywords

ANTIBODY; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CEDIRANIB; INTERLEUKIN 2; IODINE 131; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; PHOSPHATIDYLINOSITOL 3 KINASE; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; SORAFENIB; SUNITINIB; TAMOXIFEN; TETRAIODOTHYROACETIC ACID; THIAMAZOLE; THYROID HORMONE; THYROID HORMONE RECEPTOR; THYROTROPIN; THYROXINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VITRONECTIN RECEPTOR; VITRONECTIN RECEPTOR ANTIBODY;

ANGIOGENESIS; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ASTROCYTOMA; BREAST ADENOCARCINOMA; BREAST CANCER; CANCER GROWTH; CANCER MODEL; CANCER RISK; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CANCER THERAPY; COLON CANCER; DRUG EFFICACY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FIBROSARCOMA; GLIOBLASTOMA; HEAD AND NECK CANCER; HEAD AND NECK SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; HORMONE ACTION; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; KIDNEY CARCINOMA; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LUNG ADENOCARCINOMA; LUNG CANCER; METASTASIS; NEOPLASM; NONHUMAN; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PREDICTIVE VALUE; PROGRESSION FREE SURVIVAL; PROSTATE ADENOCARCINOMA; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATE HYPERTROPHY; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REVIEW; SARCOMA; SUBCLINICAL HYPOTHYROIDISM; THYROID FUNCTION; THYROIDECTOMY; THYROIDITIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TUMOR PROMOTION;

ANIMALS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; RECEPTORS, THYROID HORMONE; THYROID HORMONES;

EID: 84876754271     PISSN: 13510088     EISSN: 14796821     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1530/ERC-12-0219     Document Type: Review

References (76)

1. Baldazzi V, Tassi R, Lapini A, Santomaggio C, Carini M & Mazzanti R 2012 The impact of sunitinib-induced hypothyroidism on progression-free survival of metastatic renal cancer patients: a prospective singlecenter study. Urologic Oncology 30 704-710. (doi:10.1016/j.urolonc. 2010.07.015)
2. Bergh JJ, Lin HY, Lansing L, Mohamed SN, Davis FB, Mousa S & Davis PJ 2005 Integrin aVb3 contains a cell surface receptor site for thyroid hormone that is linked to activation of mitogen-Activated protein kinase and induction of angiogenesis. Endocrinology 146 2864-2871. (doi:10.1210/en.2005-0102)
3. Bochukova E, SchoenmakersN,AgostiniM, SchoenmakersE,RajanayagamO, Keogh JM, Henning E, Reinemund J, Gevers E, Sarri Met al. 2012 A mutation in the thyroid hormone receptor a gene. New England Journal of Medicine 366 243-249. (doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1110296)
4. Brown RL 2011 Tyrosine kinase inhibitor-induced hypothyroidism: incidence, etiology, and management. Targeted Oncology 6 217-226. (doi:10.1007/s11523-011-0197-2)
5. Cao X, Kambe F, Moeller LC, Refetoff S & Seo H 2005 Thyroid hormone induces rapid activation of Akt/protein kinase B-mammalian target of rapamycin-p70S6K cascade through phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase in human fibroblasts. Molecular Endocrinology 19 102-112. (doi:10.1210/me.2004-0093)
6. Cao X, Kambe F, Yamauchi M & Seo H 2009 Thyroid-hormone-dependent activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt cascade requires Src and enhances neuronal survival. Biochemical Journal 424 201-209. (doi:10.1042/BJ20090643)
7. Chalhoub N & Baker SJ 2009 PTEN and the PI3-kinase pathway in cancer. Annual Review of Pathology 4 127-150. (doi:10.1146/annurev.pathol.4.092311)
8. Chan IH & Privalsky ML 2009 Isoform-specific transcriptional activity of overlapping target genes that respond to thyroid hormone receptors a1 and b1. Molecular Endocrinology 23 1758-1775. (doi:10.1210/me.2009-0025)
9. Cheng SY, Leonard JL & Davis PJ 2010 Molecular aspects of thyroid hormone actions. Endocrine Reviews 31 139-170. (doi:10.1210/er.2009-0007)
10. Chiamolera MI, Sidhaye AR, Matsumoto S, He Q, Hashimoto K, Ortiga-Carvalho TM & Wondisford FE 2012 Fundamentally distinct roles of thyroid hormone receptor isoforms in a thyrotroph cell line are due to differential DNA binding. Molecular Endocrinology 26 926-939. (doi:10.1210/me.2011-1290)
11. Cristofanilli M, Yamamura Y, Kau S-W, Bevers T, Strom S, Patangan M, Hsu L, Krishnamurthy S, Theriault RL & Hortobagyi GN 2005 Thyroid hormone and breast carcinoma. Cancer 103 1122-1128. (doi:10.1002/cncr.20881)
12. Davis FB 2004 Proangiogenic action of thyroid hormone is fibroblast growth factor-dependent and is initiated at the cell surface. Circulation Research 94 1500-1506. (doi:10.1161/01.RES.0000130784.90237.4a)
13. Davis PJ, Davis FB, Mousa SA, Luidens MK & Lin HY 2011 Membrane receptor for thyroid hormone: physiologic and pharmacologic implications. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 51 99-115. (doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox- 010510-100512)
14. Feldt S, Schussel K, Quinzler R, Franzmann A, Czeche S, Ludwig WD & Schulz M 2012 Incidence of thyroid hormone therapy in patients treated with sunitinib or sorafenib: a cohort study. European Journal of Cancer 48 974-981. (doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2012.01.036)
15. Ferrara AM, Onigata K, Ercan O, Woodhead H, Weiss RE & Refetoff S 2012 Homozygous thyroid hormone receptor b-gene mutations in resistance to thyroid hormone: three new cases and review of the literature. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 97 1328-1336. (doi:10.1210/jc.2011-2642)
16. Freindorf M, Furlani TR, Kong J, Cody V, Davis FB & Davis PJ 2012 Combined QM/MM study of thyroid and steroid hormone analogue interactions with avb3 integrin. Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology 2012 959057. (doi:10.1155/2012/959057)
17. Fung KM 2006 Increased expression of type 2 3 -hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase/type 5 17 -hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C3) and its relationship with androgen receptor in prostate carcinoma. Endocrine-Related Cancer 13 169-180. (doi:10.1677/erc.1.01048)
18. Furuya F, Hanover JA & Cheng SY 2006 Activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling by a mutant thyroid hormone b receptor. PNAS 103 1780-1785. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0510849103)
19. Furuya F, Lu C, Willingham MC & Cheng SY 2007 Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase delays tumor progression and blocks metastatic spread in a mouse model of thyroid cancer. Carcinogenesis 28 2451-2458. (doi:10.1093/carcin/bgm174)
20. Garfield DH, Hercbergs A & Davis PJ 2007 Re: hypothyroidism in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma treated with sunitinib. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 99 975-976 author reply 976-977. (doi:10.1093/jnci/djm008)
21. Garfield DH, Wolter P, Schoffski P, Hercbergs A & Davis P 2008 Documentation of thyroid function in clinical studies with sunitinib: why does it matterJournal of Clinical Oncology 26 5131-5132 author reply 5132-5133. (doi:10.1200/JCO.2008.18.8680)
22. de Groot JW, Zonnenberg BA, van Ufford-Mannesse PQ, de Vries MM, Links TP, Lips CJ & Voest EE 2007 Aphase II trial of imatinib therapy for metastatic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 92 3466-3469. (doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0649)
23. Guigon CJ, Zhao L, Willingham MC & Cheng SY 2009 PTEN deficiency accelerates tumour progression in a mouse model of thyroid cancer. Oncogene 28 509-517. (doi:10.1038/onc.2008.407)
24. Hassan MM, Kaseb A, Li D, Patt YZ, Vauthey J-N, Thomas MB, Curley SA, Spitz MR, Sherman SI, Abdalla EK et al. 2009 Association between hypothyroidism and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in the United States. Hepatology 49 1563-1570. (doi:10.1002/hep.22793)
25. Hellevik AI, Asvold BO, Bjoro T, Romundstad PR, Nilsen TIL & Vatten LJ 2009 Thyroid function and cancer risk: a prospective population study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 18 570-574. (doi:10.1158/1055-9965. EPI-08-0911)
26. Hercbergs AA, Goyal LK, Suh JH, Lee S, Reddy CA, Cohen BH, Stevens GH, Reddy SK, PeereboomDM, Elson PJ et al. 2003 Propylthiouracil-induced chemical hypothyroidism with high-dose tamoxifen prolongs survival in recurrent high grade glioma: a phase I/II study. Anticancer Research 23 617-626.
27. Hiroi Y, Kim HH, Ying H, Furuya F, Huang Z, Simoncini T, Noma K, Ueki K, Nguyen NH, Scanlan TS et al. 2006 Rapid nongenomic actions of thyroid hormone. PNAS 103 14104-14109. (doi:10.1073/pnas. 0601600103)
28. Kamiya Y, Puzianowska-Kuznicka M, McPhie P, Nauman J, Cheng SY & Nauman A 2002 Expression of mutant thyroid hormone nuclear receptors is associated with human renal clear cell carcinoma. Carcinogenesis 23 25-33. (doi:10.1093/carcin/23.1.25)
29. Kaneshige M, Kaneshige K, Zhu X, Dace A, Garrett L, Carter TA, Kazlauskaite R, Pankratz DG, Wynshaw-Boris A, Refetoff S et al. 2000 Mice with a targeted mutation in the thyroid hormone b receptor gene exhibit impaired growth and resistance to thyroid hormone. PNAS 97 13209-13214. (doi:10.1073/pnas.230285997)
30. Kappers MH, van Esch JH, Smedts FM, de Krijger RR, Eechoute K, Mathijssen RH, Sleijfer S, Leijten F, Danser AH, van den Meiracker AH et al. 2011 Sunitinib-induced hypothyroidism is due to induction of type 3 deiodinase activity and thyroidal capillary regression. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 96 3087-3094. (doi:10.1210/jc. 2011-1172)
31. Kim CS, Vasko VV, Kato Y, KruhlakM, Saji M, Cheng SY & RingelMD 2005 AKT activation promotes metastasis in a mouse model of follicular thyroid carcinoma. Endocrinology 146 4456-4463. (doi:10.1210/en. 2005-0172)
32. Kimbro KS & Simons JW 2006 Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 in human breast and prostate cancer. Endocrine-Related Cancer 13 739-749. (doi:10.1677/erc.1. 00728)
33. Ko AH, Wang F & Holly EA 2007 Pancreatic cancer and medical history in a population-based case-control study in the San Francisco Bay Area, California. Cancer Causes & Control 18 809-819. (doi:10.1007/s10552-007- 9024-6)
34. KumarMS, Chiang T & Deodhar SD 1979 Enhancing effect of thyroxine on tumor growth and metastases in syngeneic mouse tumor systems. Cancer Research 39 3515-3518.
35. Lehrer S, Diamond EJ, Bajwa AM, Kornreich R, Stagger S, Stone NN, Droller MJ & Stock RG 2001 Association between serum triiodothyronine (T3) level and risk of disease recurrence in men with localized prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases 4 232-234. (doi:10.1038/sj.pcan.4500542)
36. Lehrer S, Diamond EJ, Stone NN, Droller MJ & Stock RG 2002 Serum triiodothyronine is increased in men with prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Journal of Urology 168 2431-2433. (doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)64161- 4)
37. Lei J, Mariash CN & Ingbar DH 2004 3,30,5-Triiodo-L-thyronine up-regulation of Na,K-ATPase activity and cell surface expression in alveolar epithelial cells is Src kinase-And phosphoinositide 3-kinase-dependent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 279 47589-47600. (doi:10.1074/jbc.M405497200)
38. Lin KH, Shieh HY, Chen SL & Hsu HC 1999 Expression of mutant thyroid hormone nuclear receptors in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Molecular Carcinogenesis 26 53-61. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2744 (199909)26:1!53::AID- MC7O3.0.CO;2-Z)
39. LinHY, SunM,TangHY, LinC,LuidensMK,MousaSA, Incerpi S,DrusanoGL, Davis FB & Davis PJ 2009 L-thyroxine vs. 3,5,30-triiodo-L-thyronine and cell proliferation: activation ofmitogen-Activated protein kinase and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase. American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology 296 C980-C991. (doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00305.2008)
40. Lodish MB & Stratakis CA 2010 Endocrine side effects of broad-Acting kinase inhibitors. Endocrine-Related Cancer 17 R233-R244. (doi:10.1677/ERC-10- 0082)
41. Mannavola D, Coco P, Vannucchi G, Bertuelli R, Carletto M, Casali PG, Beck-Peccoz P & Fugazzola L 2007 A novel tyrosine-kinase selective inhibitor, sunitinib, induces transient hypothyroidism by blocking iodine uptake. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 92 3531-3534. (doi:10.1210/jc.2007-0586)
42. Martinez-Iglesias O, Garcia-Silva S, Regadera J & Aranda A 2009 Hypothyroidism enhances tumor invasiveness and metastasis development. PLoS ONE 4 e6428. (doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006428)
43. Mishkin SY, Pollack R, Yalovsky MA, Morris HP & Mishkin S 1981 Inhibition of local and metastatic hepatoma growth and prolongation of survival after induction of hypothyroidism. Cancer Research 41 3040-3045.
44. Moeller LC, Dumitrescu AM & Refetoff S 2005a Cytosolic action of thyroid hormone leads to induction of hypoxia-inducible factor-1a and glycolytic genes. Molecular Endocrinology 19 2955-2963. (doi:10.1210/me.2004-0542)
45. Moeller LC, Dumitrescu AM, Walker RL, Meltzer PS & Refetoff S 2005b Thyroid hormone responsive genes in cultured human fibroblasts. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 90 936-943. (doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1768)
46. Mondul AM, Weinstein SJ, Bosworth T, Remaley AT, Virtamo J & Albanes D 2012 Circulating thyroxine, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and hypothyroid status and the risk of prostate cancer. PLoS ONE 7 e47730. (doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0047730)
47. Mousa SA, Yalcin M, Bharali DJ, Meng R, Tang HY, Lin HY, Davis FB & Davis PJ 2012 Tetraiodothyroacetic acid and its nanoformulation inhibit thyroid hormone stimulation of non-small cell lung cancer cells in vitro and its growth in xenografts. Lung Cancer 76 39-45. (doi:10.1016/j.lungcan.2011.10.003)
48. van Mullem A, van Heerebeek R, Chrysis D, Visser E, Medici M, Andrikoula M, Tsatsoulis A, Peeters R & Visser TJ 2012 Clinical phenotype and mutant TRa1. New England Journal of Medicine 366 1451-1453. (doi:10.1056/NEJMc1113940)
49. Nelson M, Hercbergs A, Rybicki L & Strome M 2006 Association between development of hypothyroidism and improved survival in patients with head and neck cancer. Archives of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery 132 1041-1046. (doi:10.1001/archotol.132.10.1041)
50. Ness RB, Grisso JA, Cottreau C, Klapper J, Vergona R, Wheeler JE, MorganM & Schlesselman JJ 2000 Factors related to inflammation of the ovarian epithelium and risk of ovarian cancer. Epidemiology 11 111-117. (doi:10.1097/00001648-200003000-00006)
51. Penning TM & Byrns MC 2009 Steroid hormone transforming aldo-keto reductases and cancer. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1155 33-42. (doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.03700.x)
52. Puzianowska-Kuznicka M, Krystyniak A, Madej A, Cheng SY & Nauman J 2002 Functionally impaired TR mutants are present in thyroid papillary cancer. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 87 1120-1128. (doi:10.1210/jc.87.3.1120)
53. Reddy A, Dash C, Leerapun A, Mettler TA, Stadheim LM, Lazaridis KN, Roberts RO & Roberts LR 2007 Hypothyroidism: a possible risk factor for liver cancer in patients with no known underlying cause of liver disease. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology 5 118-123. (doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2006.07. 011)
54. Refetoff S & Dumitrescu AM 2007 Syndromes of reduced sensitivity to thyroid hormone: genetic defects in hormone receptors, cell transporters and deiodination. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 21 277-305. (doi:10.1016/j.beem.2007.03.005)
55. Reid I, Sharpe I, McDevitt J, Maxwell W, Emmons R, Tanner WA & Monson JR 1991 Thyroid dysfunction can predict response to immunotherapy with interleukin-2 and interferon-2 a. British Journal of Cancer 64 915-918. (doi:10.1038/bjc.1991.426)
56. Riesenbeck LM, Bierer S, Hoffmeister I, Kopke T, Papavassilis P, Hertle L, Thielen B & Herrmann E 2011 Hypothyroidism correlates with a better prognosis in metastatic renal cancer patients treated with sorafenib or sunitinib. World Journal of Urology 29 807-813. (doi:10.1007/s00345-010-0627-2)
57. Rosen MD & Privalsky ML 2011 Thyroid hormone receptor mutations in cancer and resistance to thyroid hormone: perspective and prognosis. Journal of Thyroid Research 2011 361304. (doi:10.4061/2011/361304)
58. Sabatier R, Eymard JC, Walz J, Deville JL, Narbonne H, Boher JM, Salem N, Marcy M, Brunelle S, Viens P et al. 2012 Could thyroid dysfunction influence outcome in sunitinib-treated metastatic renal cell carcinomaAnnals of Oncology 23 714-721. (doi:10.1093/annonc/mdr275)
59. Schmidinger M, Vogl UM, Bojic M, Lamm W, Heinzl H, Haitel A, Clodi M, Kramer G & Zielinski CC 2011 Hypothyroidism in patients with renal cell carcinoma: blessing or curseCancer 117 534-544. (doi:10.1002/cncr.25422)
60. Semenza GL 2009 Defining the role of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 in cancer biology and therapeutics. Oncogene 29 625-634. (doi:10.1038/onc.2009.441)
61. Shinohara N, Takahashi M, Kamishima T, Ikushima H, Otsuka N, Ishizu A, Shimizu C, Kanayama H & Nonomura K 2011 The incidence and mechanism of sunitinib-induced thyroid atrophy in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma. British Journal of Cancer 104 241-247. (doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6606029)
62. Shoemaker JP, Bradley RL & Hoffman RV 1976 Increased survival and inhibition of mammary tumors in hypothyroid mice. Journal of Surgical Research 21 151-154. (doi:10.1016/0022-4804(76)90151-7)
63. Simoncini T, Hafezi-Moghadam A, Brazil DP, Ley K, Chin WW & Liao JK 2000 Interaction of oestrogen receptor with the regulatory subunit of phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase. Nature 407 538-541. (doi:10.1038/35035131)
64. Speranza G, Rubinstein L, Ivy SP & Harris PJ 2011 Correlation between adverse event reports of hypothyroidism and clinical response in patients treated with vascular endothelial growth factor receptor inhibitors (VEGFR-I). Journal of Clinical Oncology 29 (Supplement: ASCO Meeting Abstracts Part 1) abstract 2602.
65. Suzuki H, Willingham MC & Cheng SY 2002 Mice with a mutation in the thyroid hormone receptor b gene spontaneously develop thyroid carcinoma: a mouse model of thyroid carcinogenesis. Thyroid 12 963-969. (doi:10.1089/ 105072502320908295)
66. Theodossiou C & Schwarzenberger P 2000 Propylthiouracil reduces xenograft tumor growth in an athymic nude mouse prostate cancer model. American Journal of theMedical Sciences 319 96-99. (doi:10.1097/00000441-200002000-00005)
67. Theodossiou C, Skrepnik N, Robert EG, Prasad C, Axelrad TW, Schapira DV & Hunt JD 1999 Propylthiouracil-induced hypothyroidism reduces xenograft tumor growth in athymic nude mice. Cancer 86 1596-1601. (doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097- 0142(19991015)86:8!1596::AID-CNCR30O 3.0.CO;2-C)
68. Tosovic A, Bondeson AG, Bondeson L, Ericsson UB, Malm J & Manjer J 2010 Prospectively measured triiodothyronine levels are positively associated with breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Research 12 R33. (doi:10.1186/bcr2587)
69. Weijl NI, Van der Harst D, Brand A, Kooy Y, Van Luxemburg S, Schroder J, Lentjes E, Van Rood JJ, Cleton FJ & Osanto S 1993 Hypothyroidism during immunotherapy with interleukin-2 is associated with antithyroid antibodies and response to treatment. Journal of Clinical Oncology 11 1376-1383.
70. Weiss RE & Refetoff S 2000 Resistance to thyroid hormone. Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders 1 97-108. (doi:10.1023/A:1010072605757)
71. Wolter P, Stefan C, Decallonne B, Dumez H, Fieuws S, Wildiers H, Clement P, Debaere D, Van Oosterom A & Schoffski P 2008 Evaluation of thyroid dysfunction as a candidate surrogate marker for efficacy of sunitinib in patients (pts) with advanced renal cell cancer (RCC). Journal of Clinical Oncology 26 (Supplement: ASCO Meeting Abstracts).
72. Yalcin M, Bharali DJ, Lansing L, Dyskin E,Mousa SS, Hercbergs A, Davis FB, Davis PJ & Mousa SA 2009 Tetraidothyroacetic acid (Tetrac) and Tetrac nanoparticles inhibit growth of human renal cell carcinoma xenografts. Anticancer Research 29 3825-3831.
73. Yalcin M, Bharali DJ, Dyskin E, Dier E, Lansing L, Mousa SS, Davis FB, Davis PJ & Mousa SA 2010a Tetraiodothyroacetic acid and tetraiodothyroacetic acid nanoparticle effectively inhibit the growth of human follicular thyroid cell carcinoma. Thyroid 20 281-286. (doi:10.1089/thy.2009.0249)
74. Yalcin M, Dyskin E, Lansing L, Bharali DJ, Mousa SS, Bridoux A, Hercbergs AH, Lin HY, Davis FB, Glinsky GV et al. 2010b Tetraiodothyroacetic acid (Tetrac) and nanoparticulate Tetrac arrest growth of medullary carcinoma of the thyroid. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 95 1972-1980. (doi:10.1210/jc.2009-1926)
75. Yen PM2001 Physiological and molecular basis of thyroid hormone action. Physiological Reviews 81 1097-1142.
76. Yen PM, Feng X, Flamant F, Chen Y, Walker RL, Weiss RE, Chassande O, Samarut J, Refetoff S & Meltzer PS 2003 Effects of ligand and thyroid hormone receptor isoforms on hepatic gene expression profiles of thyroid hormone receptor knockout mice. EMBO Reports 4 581-587. (doi:10.1038/sj.embor.embor862)