The toxic effects and mechanisms of CuO and ZnO nanoparticles

Materials

Volumn 5, Issue 12, 2012, Pages 2850-2871

  Chang, Ya Nan ^a   Zhang, Mingyi ^a   Xia, Lin ^b   Zhang, Jun ^b   Xing, Gengmei ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS   (China)

^b BEIJING INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (China)

Author keywords

Coordination effects; CuO; Exposure routes; Nanoparticles; Non homeostasis effects; Oxidative stress; Size; Solubility; Toxic effect; ZnO

Indexed keywords

COORDINATION EFFECTS; CUO; EXPOSURE ROUTES; NON-HOMEOSTASIS EFFECTS; SIZE; TOXIC EFFECT; ZNO;

METALLIC COMPOUNDS; NANOPARTICLES; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSIOLOGY; SOLUBILITY; ZINC OXIDE;

INDUSTRIAL POISONS;

EID: 84876489254     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19961944     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ma5122850     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Yan, L.; Zheng, Y.B.; Zhao, F.; Li, S.; Gao, X.; Xu, B.; Weiss, P.S.; Zhao, Y. Chemistry and physics of a single atomic layer: Strategies and challenges for functionalization of graphene and graphene-based materials. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 97-114.
2. Amelia, M.; Lincheneau, C.; Silvi, S.; Credi, A. Electrochemical properties of CdSe and CdTe quantum dots. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 5728-5743.
3. Joh, D.Y.; Kinder, J.; Herman, L.H.; Ju, S.-Y.; Segal, M.A.; Johnson, J.N.; ChanGarnet, K.L.; Park, J. Single-walled carbon nanotubes as excitonic optical wires. Nat. Nanotechol. 2011, 6, 51-56.
4. Tang, F.; Li, L.; Chen, D. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Synthesis, biocompatibility and drug delivery. Adv. Mater. 2012, 24, 1504-1534.
5. Laurent, S.; Forge, D.; Port, M.; Roch, A.; Robic, C.; van der Elst, L.; Muller, R.N. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, stabilization, vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biological applications. Chem. Rev. 2008, 108, 2064-2110.
6. Nasu, A.; Otsubo, Y. Rheology and UV protection properties of suspensions of fine titanium dioxides in a silicone oil. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2006, 296, 558-564.
7. Colvin, V.L. The potential environmental impact of engineered nanomaterials. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 1166-1170.
8. Liu, Z.; Robinson, J.T.; Sun, X.; Dai, H. PEGylated aanographene oxide for delivery of water-insoluble cancer drugs. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 10876-10877.
9. Sun, X.; Liu, Z.; Welsher, K.; Robinson, J.; Goodwin, A.; Zaric, S.; Dai, H. Nano-graphene oxide for cellular imaging and drug delivery. Nano Res. 2008, 1, 203-212.
10. Yang, K.; Zhang, S.; Zhang, G.; Sun, X.; Lee, S.-T.; Liu, Z. Graphene in mice: Ultrahigh in vivo tumor uptake and efficient photothermal therapy. Nano Lett. 2010, 10, 3318-3323.
11. Liu, Z.; Chen, K.; Davis, C.; Sherlock, S.; Cao, Q.; Chen, X.; Dai, H. Drug delivery with carbon nanotubes for in vivo cancer treatment. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 6652-6660.
12. Harhaji, L.; Isakovic, A.; Raicevic, N.; Markovic, Z.; Todorovic-Markovic, B.; Nikolic, N.; Vranjes-Djuric, S.; Markovic, I.; Trajkovic, V. Multiple mechanisms underlying the anticancer action of nanocrystalline fullerene. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2007, 568, 89-98.
13. Kahru, A.; Dubourguier, H.-C. From ecotoxicology to nanoecotoxicology. Toxicology 2010, 269, 105-119.
14. Nations, S.; Wages, M.; Cañas, J. E.; Maul, J.; Theodorakis, C.; Cobb, G.P. Acute effects of Fe2O3, TiO2, ZnO and CuO nanomaterials on Xenopus laevis. Chemosphere 2011, 83, 1053-1061.
15. Cava, R.J. Structural chemistry and the local charge picture of copper oxide superconductors. Science 1990, 247, 656-662.
16. Tranquada, J.M.; Sternlieb, B.J.; Axe, J.D.; Nakamura, Y.; Uchida, S. Evidence for stripe correlations of spins and holes in copper oxide superconductors. Nature 1995, 375, 561-563.
17. Xu, J.F.; Ji, W.; Shen, Z.X.; Tang, S.H.; Ye, X.R.; Jia, D.Z.; Xin, X.Q. Preparation and characterization of CuO nanocrystals. J. Solid State Chem. 1999, 147, 516-519.
18. Namburu, P.K.; Kulkarni, D.P.; Misra, D.; Das, D.K. Viscosity of copper oxide nanoparticles dispersed in ethylene glycol and water mixture. Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 2007, 32, 397-402.
19. Chowdhuri, A.; Gupta, V.; Sreenivas, K.; Kumar, R.; Mozumdar, S.; Patanjali, P.K. Response speed of SnO2-based H2S gas sensors with CuO nanoparticles. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 84, 1180-1182.
20. Jammi, S.; Sakthivel, S.; Rout, L.; Mukherjee, T.; Mandal, S.; Mitra, R.; Saha, P.; Punniyamurthy, T. CuO nanoparticles catalyzed C-N, C-O, and C-S cross-coupling reactions: Scope and mechanism. J. Org. Chem. 2009, 74, 1971-1976.
21. Zhang, D.-W.; Yi, T.-H; Chen, C.-H. Cu nanoparticles derived from CuO electrodes in lithium cells. Nanotechnology 2005, 16, 2338-2341.
22. Dar, M.A.; Kim, Y.S.; Kim, W.B.; Sohn, J.M.; Shin, H.S. Structural and magnetic properties of CuO nanoneedles synthesized by hydrothermal method. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2008, 254, 7477-7481.
23. Yin, M.; Wu, C.-K.; Lou, Y.; Burda, C.; Koberstein, J.T.; Zhu, Y.; O'Brien, S. Copper oxide nanocrystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 9506-9511.
24. Zhou, K.; Wang, R.; Xu, B.; Li, Y. Synthesis, characterization and catalytic properties of CuO nanocrystals with various shapes. Nanotechnology 2006, 17, 3939-3943.
25. Chang, H.; Jwo, C.S.; Lo, C.H.; Tsung, T.T.; Kao, M.J.; Lin, H.M. Rheology of CuO nanoparticle suspension prepared by ASNSS. Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 2005, 10, 128-132.
26. 2 and ZnO nanoparticles as antiwear additive in oil lubricants. Wear 2008, 265, 422-428.
27. Hernández Battez, A.; Viesca, J.L.; González, R.; Blanco, D.; Asedegbega, E.; Osorio, A. Friction reduction properties of a CuO nanolubricant used as lubricant for a NiCrBSi coating. Wear 2010, 268, 325-328.
28. Pan, X.; Redding, J.E.; Wiley, P.A.; Wen, L.; McConnell, J.S.; Zhang, B. Mutagenicity evaluation of metal oxide nanoparticles by the bacterial reverse mutation assay. Chemosphere 2010, 79, 113-116.
29. Stoimenov, P.K.; Klinger, R.L.; Marchin, G.L.; Klabunde, K.J. Metal oxide nanoparticles as bactericidal agents. Langmuir 2002, 18, 6679-6686.
30. Ren, G.; Hu, D.; Cheng, E.W.C.; Vargas-Reus, M.A.; Reip, P.; Allaker, R.P. Characterisation of copper oxide nanoparticles for antimicrobial applications. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2009, 33, 587-590.
31. Cash, K.J.; Clark, H.A. Nanosensors and nanomaterials for monitoring glucose in diabetes. Trends Mol. Med. 2010, 16, 584-593.
32. Becheri, A.; Dürr, M.; Lo Nostro, P.; Baglioni, P. Synthesis and characterization of zinc oxide nanoparticles: Application to textiles as UV-absorbers. J. Nanopart. Res. 2008, 10, 679-689.
33. Strunk, J.; Kähler, K.; Xia, X.; Muhler, M. The surface chemistry of ZnO nanoparticles applied as heterogeneous catalysts in methanol synthesis. Surf. Sci. 2009, 603, 1776-1783.
34. Yang, K.; Xing, B.S. Sorption of phenanthrene by humic acid-coated nanosized TiO2 and ZnO. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 1845-1851.
35. Horie, M.; Nishio, K.; Fujita, K.; Endoh, S.; Miyauchi, A.; Saito, Y.; Iwahashi, H.; Yamamoto, K.; Murayama, H.; Nakano, H.; et al. Protein adsorption of ultrafine metal oxide and its influence on cytotoxicity toward cultured cells. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2009, 22, 543-553.
36. Sharma, V.; Shukla, R.K.; Saxena, N.; Parmar, D.; Das, M.; Dhawan, A. DNA damaging potential of zinc oxide nanoparticles in human epidermal cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 185, 211-218.
37. Galhardi, C.M.; Diniz, Y.S.; Rodrigues, H.G.; Faine, L.A.; Burneiko, R.C.; Ribas, B.O.; Novelli, E.L.B. Beneficial effects of dietary copper supplementation on serum lipids and antioxidant defenses in rats. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2005, 49, 283-288.
38. Zietz, B.P.; Dieter, H.H.; Lakomek, M.; Schneider, H.; Keßler-Gaedtke, B.; Dunkelberg, H. Epidemiological investigation on chronic copper toxicity to children exposed via the public drinking water supply. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 302, 127-144.
39. Galhardi, C.M.; Diniz, Y.S.; Faine, L.A.; Rodrigues, H.G.; Burneiko, R.C.M.; Ribas, B.O.; Novelli, E.L.B. Toxicity of copper intake: Lipid profile, oxidative stress and susceptibility to renal dysfunction. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2004, 42, 2053-2060.
40. Yokohira, M.; Hashimoto, N.; Yamakawa, K.; Suzuki, S.; Saoo, K.; Kuno, T.; Imaida, K. Lung carcinogenic bioassay of CuO and TiO2 nanoparticles with intratracheal instillation using F344 male rats. J. Toxicol. Pathol. 2009, 22, 71-78.
41. Karlsson, H.L.; Cronholm, P.; Gustafsson, J.; Möller, L. Copper Oxide Nanoparticles Are Highly Toxic: A comparison between metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2008, 21, 1726-1732.
42. Wang, Z.; Li, N.; Zhao, J.; White, J.C.; Qu, P.; Xing, B. CuO nanoparticle interaction with human epithelial cells: Cellular uptake, location, export, and genotoxicity. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2012, 25, 1512-1521.
43. Fahmy, B.; Cormier, S.A. Copper oxide nanoparticles induce oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in airway epithelial cells. Toxicol. In Vitro 2009, 23, 1365-1371.
44. Li, J.; Quabius, E.S.; Wendelaar Bonga, S.E.; Flik, G.; Lock, R.A.C. Effects of water-borne copper on branchial chloride cells and Na+/K+-ATPase activities in Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus). Aquat. Toxicol. 1998, 43, 1-11.
45. 2 to microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 407, 1461-1468.
46. Grosell, M.; Blanchard, J.; Brix, K.V.; Gerdes, R. Physiology is pivotal for interactions between salinity and acute copper toxicity to fish and invertebrates. Aquat. Toxicol. 2007, 84, 162-172.
47. Griffitt, R.J.; Weil, R.; Hyndman, K.A.; Denslow, N.D.; Powers, K.; Taylor, D.; Barber, D.S. Exposure to copper nanoparticles causes gill injury and acute lethality in Zebrafish (Danio rerio). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 8178-8186.
48. Pelgrom, S.M.G.J.; Lock, R.A.C.; Balm, P.H.M.; Bonga, S.E.W. Integrated physiological response of tilapia, oreochromis mossambicus, to sublethal copper exposure. Aquat. Toxicol. 1995, 32, 303-320.
49. Gomes, T.; Pereira, C.G.; Cardoso, C.; Pinheiro, J.P.; Cancio, I.; Bebianno, M.J. Accumulation and toxicity of copper oxide nanoparticles in the digestive gland of Mytilus galloprovincialis. Aquat. Toxicol. 2012, 118-119, 72-79.
50. Shi, J.; Abid, A.D.; Kennedy, I.M.; Hristova, K.R.; Silk, W.K. To duckweeds (Landoltia punctata), nanoparticulate copper oxide is more inhibitory than the soluble copper in the bulk solution. Environ. Pollut. 2011, 159, 1277-1282.
51. Bondarenko, O.; Ivask, A.; Käkinen, A.; Kahru, A. Sub-toxic effects of CuO nanoparticles on bacteria: Kinetics, role of Cu ions and possible mechanisms of action. Environ. Pollut. 2012, 169, 81-89.
52. Mortimer, M.; Kasemets, K.; Heinlaan, M.; Kurvet, I.; Kahru, A. High throughput kinetic vibrio fischeri bioluminescence inhibition assay for study of toxic effects of nanoparticles. Toxicol. In Vitro 2008, 22, 1412-1417.
53. Mortimer, M.; Kasemets, K.; Kahru, A. Toxicity of ZnO and CuO nanoparticles to ciliated protozoa Tetrahymena thermophila. Toxicology 2010, 269, 182-189.
54. Franklin, N.M.; Rogers, N.J.; Apte, S.C.; Batley, G.E.; Gadd, G.E.; Casey, P.S. Comparative toxicity of nanoparticulate ZnO, bulk ZnO, and ZnCl2 to a freshwater microalga (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata): The importance of particle solubility. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2007, 41, 8484-8490.
55. Cross, S.E.; Innes, B.; Roberts, M.S.; Tsuzuki, T.; Robertson, T.A.; McCormick, P. Human skin penetration of sunscreen nanoparticles: In-vitro assessment of a novel micronized zinc oxide formulation. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 2007, 20, 148-154.
56. Zheng, Y.; Li, R.; Wang, Y. In vitro and in vivo biocompability of ZnO nanoparticles. Int. J. Mod. Phys. B 2009, 23, 1566-1571.
57. Wang, B.; Feng, W.; Wang, M.; Wang, T.; Gu, Y.; Zhu, M.; Ouyang, H.; Shi, J.; Zhang, F.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Acute toxicological impact of nano- and submicro-scaled zinc oxide powder on healthy adult mice. J. Nanopart. Res. 2008, 10, 263-276.
58. Brunner, T.J.; Wick, P.; Manser, P.; Spohn, P.; Grass, R. N.; Limbach, L. K.; Bruinink, A.; Stark, W.J. In vitro cytotoxicity of oxide nanoparticles: Comparison to asbestos, silica, and the effect of particle solubility. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40, 4374-4381.
59. Wang, H.; Wick, R.L.; Xing, B. Toxicity of nanoparticulate and bulk ZnO, Al2O3 and TiO2 to the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Environ. Pollut. 2009, 157, 1171-1177.
60. De Berardis, B.; Civitelli, G.; Condello, M.; Lista, P.; Pozzi, R.; Arancia, G.; Meschini, S. Exposure to ZnO nanoparticles induces oxidative stress and cytotoxicity in human colon carcinoma cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2010, 246, 116-127.
61. Lin, D.; Xing, B. Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: Inhibition of seed germination and root growth. Environ. Pollut. 2007, 150, 243-250.
62. Xiong, D.; Fang, T.; Yu, L.; Sima, X.; Zhu, W. Effects of nano-scale TiO2, ZnO and their bulk counterparts on zebrafish: acute toxicity, oxidative stress and oxidative damage. Sci. Total Environ. 2011, 409, 1444-1452.
63. Buffet, P.-E.; Amiard-Triquet, C.; Dybowska, A.; Risso-de Faverney, C.; Guibbolini, M.; Valsami-Jones, E.; Mouneyrac, C. Fate of isotopically labeled zinc oxide nanoparticles in sediment and effects on two endobenthic species, the clam Scrobicularia plana and the ragworm Hediste diversicolor. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2012, 84, 191-198.
64. Blinova, I.; Ivask, A.; Heinlaan, M.; Mortimer, M.; Kahru, A. Ecotoxicity of nanoparticles of CuO and ZnO in natural water. Environ. Pollut. 2010, 158, 41-47.
65. Pipan-Tkalec, Z.; Drobne, D.; Jemec, A.; Romih, T.; Zidar, P.; Bele, M. Zinc bioaccumulation in a terrestrial invertebrate fed a diet treated with particulate ZnO or ZnCl2 solution. Toxicology 2010, 269, 198-203.
66. Yamamoto, O. Influence of particle size on the antibacterial activity of zinc oxide. Int. J. Inorg. Mater. 2001, 3, 643-646.
67. Jiang, W.; Mashayekhi, H.; Xing, B. Bacterial toxicity comparison between nano- and micro-scaled oxide particles. Environ. Pollut. 2009, 157, 1619-1625.
68. Hu, X.; Cook, S.; Wang, P.; Hwang, H.-M. In vitro evaluation of cytotoxicity of engineered metal oxide nanoparticles. Sci. Total Environ. 2009, 407, 3070-3072.
69. Heinlaan, M.; Ivask, A.; Blinova, I.; Dubourguier, H.-C.; Kahru, A. Toxicity of nanosized and bulk ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to bacteria Vibrio fischeri and crustaceans Daphnia magna and Thamnocephalus platyurus. Chemosphere 2008, 71, 1308-1316.
70. Baek, Y.-W.; An, Y.-J. Microbial toxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles (CuO, NiO, ZnO, and Sb2O3) to Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus aureus. Sci. Total Environ. 2011, 409, 1603-1608.
71. Kasemets, K.; Ivask, A.; Dubourguier, H.-C.; Kahru, A. Toxicity of nanoparticles of ZnO, CuO and TiO2 to yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Toxicol. In Vitro 2009, 23, 1116-1122.
72. Brayner, R.; Ferrari-Iliou, R.; Brivois, N.; Djediat, S.; Benedetti, M.F.; Fiévet, F. Toxicological impact studies based on Escherichia coli bacteria in ultrafine ZnO nanoparticles colloidal medium. Nano Lett. 2006, 6, 866-870.
73. Yan, L.; Zhao, F.; Li, S.; Hu, Z.; Zhao, Y. Low-toxic and safe nanomaterials by surface-chemical design, carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, metallofullerenes, and graphenes. Nanoscale 2011, 3, 362-382.
74. Hund-Rinke, K.; Simon, M. Ecotoxic effect of photocatalytic active nanoparticles (TiO2) on algae and Daphnids. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2006, 13, 225-232.
75. Mayer, A.; Vadon, M.; Rinner, B.; Novak, A.; Wintersteiger, R.; Fröhlich, E. The role of nanoparticle size in hemocompatibility. Toxicology 2009, 258, 139-147.
76. Zhao, Y.; Meng, H.; Chen, Z.; Feng, Z.; Chai, Z. Dependence of nanotoxicity on nanoscale characteristics and strategies for reducing and eliminating nanotoxicity. In Nanotoxicology; Zhao, Y., Singh, N.H., Eds.; American Scientific Publisher: Valencia, CA, USA, 2007; pp. 265-280.
77. Kwon, J.-T.; Hwang, S.-K.; Jin, H.; Kim, D.-S.; Minai-Tehrani, A.; Yoon, H.-J.; Choi, M.; Yoon, T.-J.; Han, D.-Y.; Kang, Y.-W.; et al., Body distribution of inhaled fluorescent magnetic nanoparticles in the mice. J. Occup. Health 2008, 50, 1-6.
78. De Jong, W.H.; Hagens, W.I.; Krystek, P.; Burger, M.C.; Sips, A.J.A.M.; Geertsma, R.E. Particle size-dependent organ distribution of gold nanoparticles after intravenous administration. Biomaterials 2008, 29, 1912-1919.
79. Zhang, S.; Li, J.; Lykotrafitis, G.; Bao, G.; Suresh, S. Size-dependent endocytosis of nanoparticles. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 419-424.
80. Sarlo, K.; Blackburn, K.L.; Clark, E.D.; Grothaus, J.; Chaney, J.; Neu, S.; Flood, J.; Abbott, D.; Bohne, C.; Casey, K.; et al. Tissue distribution of 20 nm, 100 nm and 1000 nm fluorescent polystyrene latex nanospheres following acute systemic or acute and repeat airway exposure in the rat. Toxicology 2009, 263, 117-26.
81. Peng, X.; Palma, S.; Fisher, N.S.; Wong, S.S. Effect of morphology of ZnO nanostructures on their toxicity to marine algae. Aquat. Toxicol. 2011, 102, 186-196.
82. Lu, A.-H.; Salabas, E.L.; Schüth, F. Magnetic nanoparticles: Synthesis, protection, functionalization, and application. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 1222-1244.
83. Ge, C.; Du, J.; Zhao, L.; Wang, L.; Liu, Y.; Li, D.; Yang, Y.; Zhou, R.; Zhao, Y.; Chai, Z.; et al. Binding of blood proteins to carbon nanotubes reduces cytotoxicity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2011, 108, 16968-16973.
84. Borm, P.J.A.; Robbins, D.; Haubold, S.; Kuhlbusch, T.; Fissan, H.; Donaldson, K.; Schins, R.; Stone, V.; Kreyling, W.; Lademann, J.; et al. The potential risks of nanomaterials: A review carried out for ECETOC. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 2006, 3, doi:10.1186/1743-8977-3-11.
85. Asli, S.; Neumann, P.M. Colloidal suspensions of clay or titanium dioxide nanoparticles can inhibit leaf growth and transpiration via physical effects on root water transport. Plant Cell Environ. 2009, 32, 577-584.
86. Proseus, T.E.; Boyer, J.S. Turgor Pressure Moves polysaccharides into growing cell walls of Chara corallina. Ann. Bot. 2005, 95, 967-979.
87. Yang, Z.; Xie, C. Zn2+ release from zinc and zinc oxide particles in simulated uterine solution. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2006, 47, 140-145.
88. Borm, P.; Klaessig, F.C.; Landry, T.D.; Moudgil, B.; Pauluhn, J.; Thomas, K.; Trottier, R.; Wood, S. Research strategies for safety evaluation of nanomaterials, Part V: Role of dissolution in biological fate and effects of nanoscale particles. Toxicol. Sci. 2006, 90, 23-32.
89. Palmer, D.A.; Bénézeth, P.; Simonson, J.M. Solubility of copper oxides in water and steam. In Water, Steam and Aqueous Solutions for Electric Power: Advances in Science and Technology, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on the Properties of Water and Steam, 29 August-3 September 2003, Kyoto, Japan, 2004; Maruzen Company: Tokyo, Japan, 2005; pp. 491-496.
90. Moos, P.J.; Chung, K.; Woessner, D.; Honeggar, M.; Cutler, N.S.; Veranth, J.M. ZnO particulate matter requires cell contact for toxicity in human colon cancer cells. Chemical Res. Toxicol. 2010, 23, 733-739.
91. Gojova, A.; Guo, B.; Kota, R.S.; Rutledge, J.C.; Kennedy, I.M.; Barakat, A.I. Induction of inflammation in vascular endothelial cells by metal oxide nanoparticles: Effect of particle composition. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 403-409.
92. Midander, K.; Cronholm, P.; Karlsson, H.L.; Elihn, K.; Möller, L.; Leygraf, C.; Wallinder, I.O. Surface characteristics, copper release, and toxicity of nano- and micrometer-sized copper and copper(II) oxide particles: A cross-disciplinary study. Small 2009, 5, 389-399.
93. Geiser, M.; Rothen-Rutishauser, B.; Kapp, N.; Schurch, S.; Kreyling, W.; Schulz, H.; Semmler, M.; Im, H.; Heyder, J.; Gehr, P. Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1555-1560.
94. Cho, W.-S.; Duffin, R.; Poland, C.A.; Howie, S.E.M.; MacNee, W.; Bradley, M.; Megson, I.L.; Donaldson, K. Metal oxide nanoparticles induce unique inflammatory footprints in the lung: important implications for nanoparticle testing. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1699-1706.
95. Cheng, Q.; Feng, J.; Chen, J.; Zhu, X.; Li, F. Brain transport of neurotoxin-I with PLA nanoparticles through intranasal administration in rats: A microdialysis study. Biopharm. Drug Dispos. 2008, 29, 431-439.
96. Wang, J.; Liu, Y.; Jiao, F.; Lao, F.; Li, W.; Gu, Y.; Li, Y.; Ge, C.; Zhou, G.; Li, B.; et al. Time-dependent translocation and potential impairment on central nervous system by intranasally instilled TiO2 nanoparticles. Toxicology 2008, 254, 82-90.
97. Chen, Z.; Meng, H.A.; Xing, G.M.; Chen, C.Y.; Zhao, Y.L.; Jia, G.A.; Wang, T.C.; Yuan, H.; Ye, C.; Zhao, F.; et al. Acute toxicological effects of copper nanoparticles in vivo. Toxicol. Lett. 2006, 163, 109-120.
98. Chatterjee, T.; Chakraborti, S.; Joshi, P.; Singh, S. P.; Gupta, V.; Chakrabarti, P. The effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on the structure of the periplasmic domain of the Vibrio cholerae ToxR protein. FEBS J. 2010, 277, 4184-4194.
99. Verma, A.; Uzun, O.; Hu, Y.; Hu, Y.; Han, H.S.; Watson, N.; Chen, S.; Irvine, D.J.; Stellacci, F. Surface-structure-regulated cell-membrane penetration by monolayer-protected nanoparticles. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 588-595.
100. Nel, A.E.; Madler, L.; Velegol, D.; Xia, T.; Hoek, E.M.V.; Somasundaran, P.; Klaessig, F.; Castranova, V.; Thompson, M. Understanding biophysicochemical interactions at the nano-bio interface. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 543-557.
101. Ho, C.-L.; Teo, S.-S.; Rahim, R.A.; Phang, S.-M. Transcripts of Gracilaria changii that improve copper tolerance of Escherichia coli. Asia Pac. J. Mol. Biol. Biotechnol. 2010, 18, 315-319.
102. Colvin, R.A.; Fontaine, C.P.; Laskowski, M.; Thomas, D. Zn2+ transporters and Zn2+ homeostasis in neurons. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2003, 479, 171-185.
103. Toduka, Y.; Toyooka, T.; Ibuki, Y. Flow cytometric evaluation of nanoparticles using side-scattered light and reactive oxygen species-Mediated fluorescence-Correlation with genotoxicity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 7629-7636.
104. Nohl, H.; Gille, L. Lysosomal ROS formation. Redox Rep. 2005, 10, 199-205.
105. Zhang, D.X.; Gutterman, D.D. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species-mediated signaling in endothelial cells. Am. J. P. Hear. 2007, 292, H2023-H2031.
106. Pisanic, T.R.; Jin, S.; Shubayev, V.I. Nanotoxicity: From in vivo and In vitro models to health risks; John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: London, UK, 2009; pp: 397-425.
107. Yang, H.; Liu, C.; Yang, D.F.; Zhang, H.S.; Xi, Z. Comparative study of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity induced by four typical nanomaterials: The role of particle size, shape and composition. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2009, 29, 69-78.
108. Xia, T.; Kovochich, M.; Liong, M.; Mädler, L.; Gilbert, B.; Shi, H.; Yeh, J.I.; Zink, J.I.; Nel, A.E. Comparison of the mechanism of toxicity of zinc oxide and cerium oxide nanoparticles based on dissolution and oxidative stress properties. ACS Nano 2008, 2, 2121-2134.
109. Yamakoshi, Y.; Umezawa, N.; Ryu, A.; Arakane, K.; Miyata, N.; Goda, Y.; Masumizu, T.; Nagano, T. Active oxygen species generated from photoexcited fullerene (C60) as potential medicines: O2-versus 1O2. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 12803-12809.
110. Pulskamp, K.; Diabaté, S.; Krug, H.F. Carbon nanotubes show no sign of acute toxicity but induce intracellular reactive oxygen species in dependence on contaminants. Toxicol. Lett. 2007, 168, 58-74.
111. Singh, N.; Manshian, B.; Jenkins, G.J.S.; Griffiths, S.M.; Williams, P.M.; Maffeis, T.G.G.; Wright, C.J.; Doak, S.H. NanoGenotoxicology: The DNA damaging potential of engineered nanomaterials. Biomaterials 2009, 30, 3891-3914.
112. Ueno, T.; Yokoi, N.; Abe, S.; Watanabe, Y. Crystal structure based design of functional metal/protein hybrids. J. Inorg. Biochem. 2007, 101, 1667-1675.
113. Dudev, T.; Lim, C. Metal binding affinity and selectivity in metalloproteins: Insights from computational studies. Ann. Rev. Biophys. 2008, 37, 97-116.
114. Alcaraz, L.A.; Gomez, J.; Ramirez, P.; Calvente, J.J.; Andreu, R.; Donaire, A. Folding and unfolding in the blue copper protein rusticyanin: Role of the oxidation state. Bioinorg. Chem. Appl. 2007, 2007, 54232-54240.
115. Lu, Y.; Berry, S.M.; Pfister, T.D. Engineering novel metalloproteins: design of metal-binding sites into native protein scaffolds. Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 3047-3080.
116. Rao, L.; Cui, Q.; Xu, X. Electronic properties and desolvation penalties of metal ions plus protein electrostatics dictate the metal binding affinity and selectivity in the copper efflux regulator. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 18092-18102.
117. Soenen, S.J.H.; Himmelreich, U.; Nuytten, N.; Pisanic, T.R.; Ferrari, A.; De Cuyper, M. Intracellular nanoparticle coating stability determines nanoparticle diagnostics efficacy and cell functionality. Small 2010, 6, 2136-2145.
118. Miller, I.S.; Lynch, I.; Dowling, D.; Dawson, K.A.; Gallagher, W.M. Surface-induced cell signaling events control actin rearrangements and motility. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2010, 93A, 493-504.
119. Brown, D.M.; Donaldson, K.; Borm, P.J.; Schins, R.P.; Dehnhardt, M.; Gilmour, P.; Jimenez, L.A.; Stone, V. Calcium and ROS-mediated activation of transcription factors and TNF-α cytokine gene expression in macrophages exposed to ultrafine particles. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 2004, 286, L344-L353.
120. Karlsson, H.L.; Gustafsson, J.; Cronholm, P.; Möller, L. Size-dependent toxicity of metal oxide particles-A comparison between nano- and micrometer size. Toxicol. Lett. 2009, 188, 112-118.
121. Abdelhay, A.; Carmen-Mihaela, T.; Christophe, M.; Cédric, M.; Hélène, G.; Ghouti, M.; Raphaël, S. Physicochemical properties and cellular toxicity of (poly)aminoalkoxysilanes-functionalized ZnO quantum dots. Nanotechnology 2012, 23, 335101:1-335101:33
122. Hackenberg, S.; Scherzed, A.; Harnisch, W.; Froelich, K.; Ginzkey, C.; Koehler, C.; Hagen, R.; Kleinsasser, N. Antitumor activity of photo-stimulated zinc oxide nanoparticles combined with paclitaxel or cisplatin in HNSCC cell lines. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 2012, 114, 87-93.
123. George, S.; Pokhrel, S.; Xia, T.; Gilbert, B.; Ji, Z.; Schowalter, M.; Rosenauer, A.; Damoiseaux, R.; Bradley, K.A.; Mädler, L.; et al. Use of a rapid cytotoxicity screening approach to engineer a safer zinc oxide nanoparticle through iron doping. ACS Nano 2009, 4, 15-29.