Oesophageal cancer - An overview

Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 230-244

  Schweigert, Michael ^a   Dubecz, Attila ^a   Stein, Hubert J ^a  

^a KLINIKUM NÜRNBERG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BARIUM; CA 125 ANTIGEN; CA 19-9 ANTIGEN; CA 72-4 ANTIGEN; CARBOPLATIN; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; CISPLATIN; CONTRAST MEDIUM; CYTOKERATIN 19; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; FLUOROURACIL; LUGOL; METHYLENE BLUE; PACLITAXEL; PROTEIN P53; SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA ANTIGEN;

ADJUVANT CHEMOTHERAPY; ARGON PLASMA COAGULATION; AUTOFLUORESCENCE IMAGING; BRACHYTHERAPY; BRONCHOSCOPY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CARCINOGENESIS; CHEMORADIOTHERAPY; CHROMOENDOSCOPY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; ENDOBRONCHIAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY; ENDOSCOPIC BIOPSY; ENDOSCOPIC ECHOGRAPHY; ENDOSCOPIC SUBMUCOSAL DISSECTION; ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY; ENDOSCOPY; ESOPHAGEAL SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA; ESOPHAGOGRAPHY; ESOPHAGUS CARCINOMA; ESOPHAGUS RESECTION; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; MINIMALLY INVASIVE SURGERY; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; NARROW BAND IMAGING; OVERALL SURVIVAL; PALLIATIVE THERAPY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION DOSE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SEX DETERMINATION; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TRANSHIATAL ESOPHAGECTOMY; TRANSTHORACIC ESOPHAGECTOMY;

CHEMOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; COMBINED MODALITY THERAPY; ESOPHAGEAL NEOPLASMS; ESOPHAGECTOMY; ESOPHAGOSCOPY; HUMANS; NEOADJUVANT THERAPY; PALLIATIVE CARE; RADIOTHERAPY, ADJUVANT; STENTS;

EID: 84876410934     PISSN: 17595045     EISSN: 17595053     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrgastro.2012.236     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. Ferlay, J. et al. Oesophageal Cancer Incidence and Mortality Worldwide in 2008. GLOBOCAN 2008 [online], http://globocan.iarc.fr/factsheets/cancers/ oesophagus.asp (2008).
2. Cancer Facts & Figures 2012. American Cancer Society [online], http://www.cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@epidemiologysurveilance/documents/ document/acspc-031941.pdf (2012).
3. Kamangar, F., Dores, G. M. & Anderson, W. F. Patterns of cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence across five continents: defining priorities to reduce cancer disparities in different geographic regions of the world. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 2137-2150 (2006).
4. Vaughan, T. L., Davis, S., Kristal, A. & Thomas, D. B. Obesity, alcohol and tobacco as risk factors for cancer of the esophagus and gastric cardia: adenocarcinoma versus squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 4, 85-92 (1995).
5. Blot, W. J., Devesa, S. S., Kneller, R. W. & Fraumeni, J. F. Rising incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus and gastric cardia. JAMA 265, 1287-1289 (1991).
6. Blot, W. J., Devesa, S. S. & Fraumeni, J. F. Continuing climb in rates of esophageal adenocarcinoma: an update. JAMA 270, 1320 (1993).
7. Vial, M., Grande, L. & Pera, M. Epidemiology of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, gastric cardia and upper gastric third. Recent Results Cancer Res. 182, 1-17 (2010).
8. Crosby, T., Evans, M., Gillies, R. & Maynard, N. D. The management of a patient with an operable carcinoma of the oesophagus. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. 91, 366-370 (2009).
9. Crew, K. D. & Neugut, A. I. Epidemiology of upper gastrointestinal malignancies. Semin. Oncol. 31, 450-464 (2004).
10. Pohl, H., Sirovich, B. & Welch, H. G. Esophageal adenocarcinoma incidence: are we reaching the peak? Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 19, 1468-1470 (2010).
11. Curado, M. P. et al. (Eds) in Cancer Incidence in Five Continents Vol. IX. (IARC Scientific Publication No. 160, Lyon, 2007).
12. Zambon, P. et al. Smoking, type of alcoholic beverage and squamous-cell oesophageal cancer in northern Itlay. Int. J. Cancer 86, 144-149 (2000).
13. Melhado, R., Alderson, D. & Tucker, O. The changing face of esophageal cancer. Cancers 2, 1379-1404 (2010).
14. Cook, M. B., Chow, W. H. & Devesa, S. S. Oesophageal cancer incidence in the United States by race, sex, and histologic type, 1977-2005. Br. J. Cancer 101, 855-859 (2009).
15. Yang, C. S. Research on esophageal cancer in China: a review. Cancer Res. 40 (8 Pt 1), 2633-2644 (1980).
16. Babaei, M. et al. Cancer occurrence in Semnan province, Iran: results of a population-based cancer registry. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 6, 159-164 (2005).
17. Haghdoost, A. A. et al. Rising incidence of adenocarcinoma of the esophagus in Kerman, Iran. Arch. Iran. Med. 11, 364-370 (2008).
18. Botterweck, A. A., Schouten, L. J., Volovics, A., Dorant, E. & van Den Brandt, P. A. Trends in incidence of adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus and gastric cardia in ten European countries. Int. J. Epidemiol. 29, 645-654 (2000).
19. Lindblad, M., Ye, W., Lindgren, A. & Lagergren, J. Disparities in the classification of esophageal and cardia adenocarcinomas and their influence on reported incidence rates. Ann. Surg. 243, 479-485 (2006).
20. Engel, L. S. et al. Population attributable risks of esophageal and gastric cancers. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95, 1404-1413 (2003).
21. Rubenstein, J. H. & Taylor, J. B. Meta-analysis: the association of oesophageal adenocarcinoma with symptoms of gastro-oesophageal reflux. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 32, 1222-1227 (2010).
22. Erichsen, R. et al. Erosive reflux disease increases risk for esophageal adenocarcinoma, compared with nonerosive reflux. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 10, 475-480 (2012).
23. Hvid-Jensen, F., Pedersen, L., Drewes, A. M., Sørensen, H. T. & Funch-Jensen, P. Incidence of adenocarcinoma among patients with Barrett's esophagus. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 1375-1383 (2011).
24. Hampel, H., Abraham, N. S. & El-Serag, H. B. Meta-analysis: obesity and the risk for gastroesophageal reflux disease and its complications. Ann. Intern. Med. 143, 199-211 (2005).
25. Cook, M. B. et al. Cigarette smoking and adencarcinomas of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction: a pooled analysis from the international BEACON consortium. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 102, 1344-1353 (2010).
26. Freedman, J., Ye, W., Näslund, E. & Lagergren, J. Association between cholecystectomy and adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. Gastroenterology 121, 548-553 (2001).
27. Rokkas, T., Pistiolas, D., Sechopoulos, P., Robotis, I. & Margantinis, G. Relationship between Helicobacter pylori infection and esophageal neoplasia: a meta-analysis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 5, 1413-1417 (2007).
28. Vicari, J. J. et al. The seroprevalence of cagA-positive Helicobacter pylori strains in the spectrum of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Gastroenterology 115, 50-57 (1998).
29. Brown, L. M. et al. Are racial differences in squamous cell esophageal cancer explained by alcohol and tobacco use? J. Natl Cancer Inst. 86, 1340-1345 (1994).
30. Jemal, A. et al. Global cancer statistics. CA Cancer J. Clin. 61, 69-90 (2011).
31. Zendehdel, K., Nyrén, O., Edberg, A. & Ye, W. Risk of esophageal adenocarcinoma in achalasia patients, a retrospective cohort study in Sweden. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 106, 57-61 (2011).
32. Stiff, G., Alwafi, A., Rees, B. I. & Lari, J. Corrosive injuries of esophagus and stomach: experience in management in regional pediatric center. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. 78, 119-123 (1996).
33. Appelqvist, P. & Salmo, M. Lye corrosion carcinoma of the esophagus: a review of 63 cases. Cancer 45, 2655-2658 (1980).
34. Boone, J., Livestro, D. P., Elias, S. G., Borel Rinkes, I. H. & van Hillegersberg, R. International survey on esophageal cancer: part II staging and neoadjuvant therapy. Dis. Esophagus 22, 203-210 (2009).
35. Levine, M. S. & Rubesin, S. E. Diseases of the esophagus: diagnosis with esophagography. Radiology 237, 414-427 (2005).
36. Goldstein, H. M. & Dodd, G. D. Double-contrast examination of the esophagus. Gastrointest. Radiol. 1, 3-6 (1976).
37. Levine, M. S., Rubesin, S. E. & Laufer, I. Barium esophagography: a study for all seasons. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6, 11-25 (2008).
38. Levine, S. L. et al. Carcinoma of the esophagus and esophagogastric junction: sensitivity of radiographic diagnosis. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 168, 1423-1426 (1997).
39. Agrawal, A. & Wenig, B. L. Screening for simultaneous esophageal primary tumors. Endoscopy vs esophagography. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 124, 930-932 (1998).
40. Fornari, F. & Wagner, R. Update on endoscopic diagnosis, management and surveillance strategies of esophageal disease. World J. Gastrointest. Endosc. 4, 117-122 (2012).
41. Connor, M. J. & Sharma, P. Chromoendoscopy and magnification endoscopy in Barrett esophagus. Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. 13, 269-277 (2003).
42. Ormeci, N. et al. The usefulness of chromoendoscopy with methylene blue in Barrett's metaplasia and early esophageal carcinoma. Surg. Endosc. 22, 693-700 (2008).
43. Connor, M. J. & Sharma, P. Chromoendoscopy and magnification endoscopy for diagnosing esophageal cancer and dysplasia. Thorac. Surg. Clin. 14, 87-94 (2004).
44. Ide, E., Maluf-Filho, F., Chaves, D. M., Matuguma, S. E. & Sakai, P. Narrow-band imaging without magnification for detecting early esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. World J. Gastroenterol. 17, 4408-4413 (2011).
45. Barros Lopes, A. & Borges Fagundes, R. Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma-precursor lesions and early diagnosis. World J. Gastrointest. Endosc. 4, 9-16 (2012).
46. Yoshida, T. et al. Narrow-band imaging system with magnifying endoscopy for superficial esophageal lesions. Gastrointest. Endosc. 59, 288-295 (2004).
47. Suzuki, H., Saito, Y., Ikehara, H. & Oda, I. Evaluation of visualization of squamous cell carcinoma of esophagus and pharynx using an Autofluorescence imaging videoendoscope system. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 24, 1834-1839 (2009).
48. Yoshida, Y. et al. Assessment of novel endoscopic techniques for visualizing superficial esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: autofluorescence and narrow band imaging. Dis. Esophagus 22, 439-446 (2009).
49. Heuberger, D., Manner, H., Ell, C. & Pech, O. How is early Barrett's cancer currently diagnosed and treated in Western Europe? Results of a survey at 52 university hospitals in eight Western European countries. Z. Gastroenterol. 50, 670-676 (2012).
50. Dittler, H. J., Pesarini, A. C. & Siewert, J. R. Endoscopic classification of esophageal cancer: correlation with the T stage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 38, 662-668 (1992).
51. Dittler, H. J. & Siewert, J. R. Role of endoscopic ultrasonography in esophageal carcinoma. Endoscopy 25, 156-161 (1993).
52. Van Vliet, E. P., Heijenbrok-Kal, M. H., Hunink, M. G. M., Kuipers, E. J. & Siersema, P. D. Staging investigations for oesophageal cancer: a meta-analysis. Br. J. Cancer 98, 547-557 (2008).
53. Cerfolio, R. J., Bryant, A. S., Ohja, B., Bartolucci, A. A. & Eloubeidi, M. A. The accuracy of endoscopic ultrasonography with fine-needle aspiration, integrated positron emission tomography with computed tomography, and computed tomography in restaging patients with esophageal cancer after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 129, 1232-1241 (2005).
54. McClave, S. A., Jones, W. F. & Evans, W. B. Do physician attitudes and practices limit use of EUS in the staging and the treatment of esophageal carcinoma? Gastrointest. Endosc. 61, 840-848 (2005).
55. Kato, H. et al. The incremental effect of positron emission tomography on diagnostic accuracy in the initial staging of esophageal carcinoma. Cancer 103, 148-156 (2005).
56. Kato, H. et al. Comparison between whole-body positron emission tomography and bone scintigraphy in evaluating bony metastases of esophageal carcinomas. Anticancer Res. 25, 4439-4444 (2005).
57. Van Westreenen, H. L. et al. Limited additional value of positron emission tomography in staging esophageal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 94, 1515-1520 (2007).
58. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose integrated positron emission tomography/computed tomography in the staging of oesophageal cancer. Eur. Radiol. 21, 274-280 (2011).
59. Noble, F., Bailey, D., SWCIS Upper Gastrointestinal Tumour Panel, Tung, K. & Byrne, J. P. Impact of integrated PET/CT in the staging of oesophageal cancer: a UK population-based cohort study. Clin. Radiol. 64, 699-705 (2009).
60. Gillies, R. S. et al. Role of positron emission tomography-computed tomography in predicting survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy and surgery for oesophageal adenocarcinoma. Br. J. Surg. 99, 239-245 (2012).
61. Ott, K., Weber, W. & Siewert, J. R. The importance of PET in the diagnosis and response evaluation of esophageal cancer. Dis. Esophagus 19, 433-442 (2006).
62. Weber, W. A. et al. Prediction of response to preoperative chemotherapy in adenocarcinoma of the esophagogastric junction by metabolic imaging. J. Clin. Oncol. 19, 3058-3065 (2001).
63. Ott, K. et al. Metabolic imaging predicts response, survival and recurrence in adenocarcinoma of the esophagogastric junction. J. Clin. Oncol. 24, 4692-4698 (2006).
64. Theissen, J. et al. Early response evaluation and prediction in neoadjuvant-treated patients with esophageal cancer. World J. Gastrointest. Surg. 1, 30-37 (2009).
65. Omloo, J. M. T. et al. FDG-PET parameters as prognostic factor in esophageal cancer patients: a review. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 18, 3338-3352 (2011).
66. Wieder, H. A. Time course of tumor metabolic activity during chemoradiotherapy of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and response of treatment. J. Clin. Oncol. 22, 900-908 (2004).
67. Westerterp, M. et al. Monitoring of response to pre-operative chemoradiation in combination with hyperthermia in oesophageal cancer by FDG-PET. Int. J. Hyperthermia 22, 149-160 (2006).
68. Vallböhmer, D. et al. [18F]-Fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography for the assessment of histopathologic response and prognosis after completion of neoadjuvant chemoradiation in esophageal cancer. Ann. Surg. 250, 888-894 (2009).
69. 18F-FDG-PET) in the identification of responders to chemoradiation therapy for the treatment of locally advanced esophageal cancer. Ann. Surg. 243, 472-478 (2006).
70. 18FDG uptake during induction chemoradiation for oesophageal cancer fails to predict histomorphological tumour response. Br. J. Cancer 95, 1174-1179 (2006).
71. Van Heijl, M. et al. NEOadjuvant therapy monitoring with PET and CT in Esophageal Cancer (NEOPEC-trial). BMC Med. Phys. 8, 3 (2008).
72. Van Heijl, M. et al. Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for evaluating early response during neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy in patients with potentially curable esophageal cancer. Ann. Surg. 253, 56-63 (2011).
73. Gluckman, J. L. & Crissman, J. D. Survival rates in 548 patients with multiple neoplasms of the upper aerodigestive tract. Laryngoscope 93, 71-74 (1983).
74. Vrabec, D. P. Multiple primary malignancies of the upper aerodigestive system. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 88, 846-854 (1979).
75. Riedel, M. et al. Preoperative bronchoscopic assessment of airway invasion by esophageal cancer: a prospective study. Chest 113, 687-695 (1998).
76. Cheng, S. L. et al. The role of bronchoscopic assessment in esophageal cancer-clinical and survival analysis in 153 patients. J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 104, 168-173 (2005).
77. Garrido, T. et al. Endobronchial ultrasound application for diagnosis of tracheobronchial tree invasion by esophageal cancer. Clinics 64, 499-504 (2009).
78. Nishimura, Y. et al. Bronchoscopic ultrasonography in the diagnosis of tracheobronchial invasion of esophageal cancer. J. Ultrasound Med. 21, 49-58 (2002).
79. Osugi, H. et al. Bronchoscopic ultrasonography for staging supracarinal esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: impact on outcome. World J. Surg. 27, 590-594 (2003).
80. Mealy, K. et al. Tumour marker detection in oesophageal carcinoma. Eur. J. Oncol. 22, 505-507 (1996).
81. Brockmann, J. G., Nottberg, H. S., Glodny, B., Heinecke, A. & Senninger, N. J. CYFRA 21-21 serum analysis in patients with esophageal cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 6, 4249-4252 (2000).
82. Quillien, V., Raoul, J. L., Laurent, J. F., Meunier, B. & Le Prise, E. Comparison of Cyfra 21-21, TPA and SCC tumor markers in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Oncol. Rep. 5, 1561-1565 (1998).
83. Yan, H. I. et al. Cytokeratin 19 fragment antigen 21-21 as an independent predictor for definitive chemoradiotherapy sensitivity in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Chin. Med. J. 125, 1410-1415 (2012).
84. Yi, Y. et al. CYFRA 21-21 and CEA are useful markers for predicting the sensitivity to chemoradiotherapy of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Biomarkers 14, 480-485 (2009).
85. Blanchard, P. et al. Prognostic significance of anti-p53 and anti-KRas circulating antibodies in esophageal cancer patients treated with chemoradiotherapy. BMC Cancer 12, 119 (2012).
86. Boone, J., Livestro, D. P., Elias, S. G., Borel Rinkes, I. H. & van Hillegersberg, R. International survey on esophageal cancer: part I surgical techniques. Dis. Esophagus 22, 195-202 (2009).
87. Pech, O. et al. Long-term results and risk factor analysis for recurrence after curative endoscopic therapy in 349 patients with high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia and mucosal adenocarcinoma in Barrett's oesophagus. Gut 57, 1200-1206 (2008).
88. Pech, O. et al. Comparison between endoscopic and surgical resection of mucosal esophageal adenocarcinoma in Barrett's esophagus at two high-volume centers. Ann. Surg. 254, 67-72 (2011).
89. Honda, K. & Akiho, H. Endoscopic submucosal dissection for superficial esophageal squamous cell neoplasms. World J. Gastrointest. Pathophysiol. 3, 44-50 (2012).
90. Yoshii, T., Ohkawa, S., Tamai, S. & Kameda, Y. Clinical outcome of endoscopic mucosal resection for esophageal squamous cell cancer invading mucularis mucosa and submucosal layer. Dis. Esophagus http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ j.1442-20502012.01370.x.
91. Yamashina, T. et al. Safety and curative ability of endoscopic submucosal dissection for superficial esophageal cancers at least 50 mm in diameter. Dig. Endosc. 24, 220-225 (2012).
92. Ono, S. et al. Long-term outcomes of endoscopic submucosal dissection for superficial esophageal squamous cell neoplasms. Gastrointest. Endosc. 70, 860-866 (2009).
93. Repici, A. et al. Endoscopic submucosal dissection in patients with early esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: results from a prospective Western series. Gastrointest. Endosc. 71, 715-721 (2010).
94. Kim, H. P. et al. Focal endoscopic mucosal resection before radiofrequency ablation is equally effective and safe compared with radiofrequency ablation alone for the eradication of Barrett's esophagus with advanced neoplasia. Gastrointest. Endosc. 76, 733-739 (2012).
95. Stein, H. J., Feith, M., Mueller, J., Werner, M. & Siewert, J. R. Limited resection for early adenocarcinoma in Barrett's esophagus. Ann. Surg. 232, 733-742 (2000).
96. Stein, H. J. & Feith, M. Surgical strategies for early esophageal adenocarcinoma. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 19, 927-940 (2005).
97. Stein, H. J., Hutter, J., Feith, M. & von Rahden, B. H. Limited surgical resection and jejunal interposition for early adenocarcinoma of the distal esophagus. Semin. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 19, 72-78 (2007).
98. Merendino, K. A. & Dillard, D. H. The concept of sphincter substitution by an interposed jejunal segment for anatomic and physiologic abnormalities at the esophagogastric junction; with special reference to reflux esophagitis, cardiospasm and esophageal varices. Ann. Surg. 142, 486-506 (1955).
99. Tachibana, M. et al. Clinical outcomes of extended esophagectomy with three-field lymph node dissection for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Am. J. Surg. 189, 98-109 (2005).
100. Walther, B., Johansson, J., Johnsson F., von Holstein, C. S. & Zilling, T. Cervical or thoracic anastomosis after esophageal resection and gastric tube reconstruction. Ann. Surg. 238, 803-814 (2003).
101. Cense, H. A. et al. Quality of life after colon interposition be necessity for esophageal cancer replacement. J. Surg. Oncol. 88, 32-38 (2004).
102. Abunasra, H. et al. Predictors of operative death after oesophagectomy for carcinoma. Br. J. Surg. 92, 1029-1033 (2005).
103. Mariette, C., Taillier, G., Van Seuningen, I. & Triboulet, J. P. Factors affecting postoperative course and survival after en bloc resection for esophageal carcinoma. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 78, 1177-1183 (2004).
104. Lerut, T. et al. Anastomotic complications after esophagectomy. Dig. Surg. 19, 92-98 (2002).
105. Alanezi, K. & Urschel, J. D. Mortality secondary to esophageal anastomotic leak. Ann. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 10, 71-75 (2004).
106. Lagergren, P. et al. Health-related quality of life among patients cured by surgery for esophageal cancer. Cancer 110, 686-693 (2007).
107. Medical Research Council Oesophageal Cancer Working Party. Surgical resection with or without preoperative chemotherapy in oesophageal cancer: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 359, 1727-1733 (2002).
108. Omloo, J. M. T. et al. Extended transthoracic resection compared with limited transhiatal resection for adenocarcinoma of the mid/distal esophagus. Five-year survival of a randomized clinical trial. Ann. Surg. 246, 992-1001 (2007).
109. Grotenhuis, B. A. et al. Surgical management of submucosal esophageal cancer. Extended or regional lymphadenectomy? Ann. Surg. 252, 823-830 (2010).
110. Orringer, M. B. & Sloan, H. Esophagectomy without thoracotomy. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 76, 643-654 (1978).
111. Orringer, M. B. Transhiatal esophagectomy without thoracotomy for carcinoma of the thoracic esophagus. Ann. Surg. 200, 282-288 (1984).
112. Orringer, M. B. et al. Two thousand transhiatal esophagectomies: changing trends, lessons learned. Ann. Surg. 246, 363-372 (2007).
113. Chang, A. C, Ji, H., Birkmeyer, N. J., Orringer, M. B. & Birkmeyer, J. D. Outcomes after transhiatal and transthoracic esophagectomy for cancer. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 85, 424-429 (2008).
114. Hulscher, J. B. F. et al. Extended transthoracic resection compared with limited transhiatal resection for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 1662-1669 (2002).
115. Van Hagen, P. et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy for esophageal or junctional cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 366, 2074-2084 (2012).
116. Pennathur, A., Awais, O. & Luketich, J. D. Technique of minimally invasive Ivor Lewis esophagectomy. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 89, S2159-S2162 (2010).
117. Nguyen, N. T. et al. Minimally invasive esophagectomy: lessons learned from 104 operations. Ann. Surg. 248, 1081-1091 (2008).
118. Biere, S. S., Cuesta, M. A. & van der Peet, D. L. Minimally invasive versus open esophagectomy for cancer: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Minerva Chir. 64, 121-133 (2009).
119. Verhage, R. J., Hazebroek, E. J., Boone, J. & Van Hillegersberg, R. Minimally invasive surgery compared to open procedures in esophagectomy for cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Minerva Chir. 64, 135-146 (2009).
120. Biere, S. S. et al. Minimally invasive versus open oesophagectomy for patients with oesophageal cancer: a multicentre, open-label, randomized controlled trial. Lancet 379, 1887-1892 (2012).
121. Mamidanna, R., Bottle, A., Aylin, P., Faiz, O. & Hanna, G. B. Short-term outcomes following open versus minimally invasive esophagectomy for cancer in England: a population-based national study. Ann. Surg. 255, 197-203 (2012).
122. Luketich, J. D. et al. Outcomes after minimally nvasive esophagectomy: review of over 1000 patients. Ann. Surg. 256, 95-103 (2012).
123. Avital, S., Zundel, N., Szomstein, S. & Rosenthal, R. Laparoscopic transhiatal esophagectomy for esophageal cancer. Am. J. Surg. 190, 69-74 (2005).
124. Sanders, G. et al Minimally invasive transhiatal esophagectomy: lessons learned. Surg. Endosc. 21, 1190-1193 (2007).
125. Scheepers, J. J. G. et al. Laparoscopic transhiatal resection for malignancies of the distal esophagus: outcome of the first 50 resected patients. Surgery 143, 278-285 (2008).
126. Dapri, G., Himpens, J. & Cadiere, G. B. Minimally nvasive esophagectomy for cancer: laparoscopic transhiatal procedure or thoracoscopy in prone position followed by laparoscopy? Surg. Endosc. 22, 1060-1069 (2008).
127. Galvani, C. A. et al. Robotically assisted laparoscopic transhiatal esophagectomy. Surg. Endosc. 22, 188-195 (2008).
128. Boone, J., Borel Rinkes, I. H. M. & van Hillegersberg, R. Transhiatal robot-assisted esophagectomy. Surg. Endosc. 22, 1139-1140 (2008).
129. Kim, D. J. et al. Thoracoscopic esophagectomy for esophageal cancer: feasibility and safety of robot assistance in the prone position. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 139, 53-59 (2010).
130. Van Hillegersberg, R. et al. First experience with robot-assisted thoracoscopic esophagolymphadenectomy for esophageal cancer. Surg. Endosc. 20, 1435-1439 (2006).
131. Walsh, T. N. et al. A comparison of multimodal therapy and surgery for esophageal adenocarcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 335, 462-467 (1996).
132. Allum, W. H., Stenning, S. P., Bancewicz, J., Clark, P. I. & Langley, R. E. Long-term results of a randomized trial of surgery with or without preoperative chemotherapy in esophageal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 27, 5062-5067 (2009).
133. Cunningham, D. et al. Perioperative chemotherapy versus surgery alone for resectable gastroesophageal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 355, 11-20 (2006).
134. Boonstra, J. J. et al. Chemotherapy followed by surgery versus surgery alone in patients with resectable oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma: long-term results of a randomized controlled trial. BMC Cancer 11, 181-191 (2011).
135. Forastiere, A., Orringer, M. B., Perez-Tamayo, C., Urba, S. G. & Zahurak, M. Preoperative chemoradiation followed by transhiatal esophagectomy for carcinoma of the esophagus. J. Clin. Oncol. 11, 1118-1123 (1993).
136. Bates, B. A., Detterbeck, F. C., Bernard, S. A., Qaqish, B. F. & Tepper, J. E. Concurrent radiation therapy and chemotherapy followed by esophagectomy for localized esophageal carcinoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 14, 156-163 (1996).
137. Donington, J. S. et al. Tumor response to induction chemoradiation: influence on survival after esophagectomy. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 24, 631-636 (2003).
138. Kleinberg, L. & Forastiere, A. A. Chemoradiation in the management of esophageal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 25, 4110-4117 (2007).
139. Kelsen, D. P. et al. Chemotherapy followed by surgery compared with surgery alone for localized esophageal cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 339, 1979-1984 (1998).
140. Kelsen, D. P. et al. Long-term results of RTOG trial 8911 (USA Intergroup 113): a random assignment trial comparison of chemotherapy followed by surgery compared with surgery alone for esophageal cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 25, 3719-3725 (2007).
141. Stahl, M. et al. Chemoradiation with and without surgery in patients with locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. J. Clin. Oncol. 23, 2310-2317 (2005).
142. Morgan, M. A. et al. Stage-for-stage comparison of definitive chemoradiotherapy, surgery alone and neoadjuvant chemotherapy for oesophageal cancer. Br. J. Surg. 96, 1300-1307 (2009).
143. Luu, T. D. et al. Neoadjuvant chemoradiation versus chemotherapy for patients undergoing esophagectomy for esophageal cancer. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 85, 1217-1223 (2008).
144. Wijnhoven, B. P., van Lanschot, J. J., Tilanus, H. W., Steyerberg, E. W. & van der Gaast, A. Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for esophageal cancer: a review of meta-analyses. World J. Surg. 33, 2606-2614 (2009).
145. Urschel, J. D. & Vasan, H. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials that compared neoadjuvant chemoradiation and surgery to surgery alone for resectable esophageal cancer. Am. J. Surg. 185, 538-543 (2003).
146. Sjoquist, K. M. et al. Survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for resectable oesophageal carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol. 12, 681-692 (2011).
147. D'Amico, T. A. Outcomes after surgery for esophageal cancer. Gastrointest. Cancer Res. 1, 188-196 (2007).
148. Herskovic, A. et al. Combined chemotherapy and radiotherapy compared with radiotherapy alone in patients with cancer of the esophagus. N. Engl. J. Med. 326, 1593-1598 (1992).
149. Cooper, J. S. et al. Chemoradiotherapy of locally advanced esophageal cancer: long term follow up of a prospective randomized trial (RTOG 85-01). Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. JAMA 281, 1623-1627 (1999).
150. Minsky, B. D. et al. Final report of Intergroup trial 0122 (ECOG PE-289, RTOG 90-12): Phase II trial of neoadjuvant chemotherapy plus concurrent chemotherapy and high-dose radiation for squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 43, 517-523 (1999).
151. Minsky, B. D. et al. INT 0123 (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 94-05) phase III trial of combined-modality therapy for esophageal cancer: high-dose versus standard-dose radiation therapy. J. Clin. Oncol. 20, 1167-1174 (2002).
152. Bedenne, L. et al. Chemoradiation followed by surgery compared with chemoradiation alone in squamous cancer of the esophagus: FFCD 9102. J. Clin. Oncol. 25, 1160-1168 (2007).
153. Gwynne, S. et al. Definitive chemoradiation for oesophageal cancer-a standard of care in patients with non-metastatic oesophageal cancer. Clin. Oncol. (R. Coll. Radiol.) 23, 182-188 (2011).
154. Tachimori, Y. Role of salvage esophagectomy after definitive chemoradiotherapy. Gen. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 57, 71-78 (2009).
155. Gardner-Thorpe, J., Hardwick, R. H. & Dwerryhouse, S. J. Salvage oesophagectomy after local failure of definitive chemoradiotherapy. Br. J. Surg. 94, 1059-1066 (2007).
156. Borghesi, S., Hawkins, M. A. & Tait, D. Oesophagectomy after definitive chemoradiation in patients with locally advanced oesophageal cancer. Clin. Oncol. (R. Coll. Radiol.) 20, 221-226 (2008).
157. Tachimori, Y. et al. Salvage esophagectomy after high-dose chemoradiotherapy for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 137, 49-54 (2009).
158. Chao, Y. K. et al. Salvage surger y after failed chemoradiotherapy in squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 35, 289-294 (2009).
159. Daly, J. M., Karnell, L. H. & Menck, H. R. National Cancer Data Base report on esophageal cancer. Cancer 78, 1820-1828 (1996).
160. Mannell, A., Becker, P. J. & Nissenbaum, M. Bypass surgery for unresectable oesophageal cancer: early and late results in 124 cases. Br. J. Surg. 75, 283-286 (1988).
161. Hirai, T. et al. Bypass operation for advanced esophageal cancer-an analysis of 93 cases. Jpn J. Surg. 19, 182-188 (1989).
162. Meunier, B. et al. Gastric bypass for malignant esophagotracheal fistula: a series of 21 cases. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 13, 184-188 (1998).
163. Caspers, R. J., Welvaart, K., Verkes, R. J., Hermans, J. & Leer, J. W. The effect of radiotherapy on dysphagia and survival in patients with esophageal cancer. Radiother. Oncol. 12, 15-23 (1988).
164. O'Rourke, I. C., Tiver, K., Bull., C., Gebski, V. & Langlands, A. O. Swallowing performance after radiation therapy for carcinoma of the esophagus. Cancer 61, 2022-2026 (1988).
165. Wara, W. M., Mauch, P. M., Thomas, A. N. & Phillips, T. L. Palliation for carcinoma of the esophagus. Radiology 121 (3 Pt 1), 717-720 (1976).
166. Coia, L. R., Soffen, E. M., Schultheiss, T. E., Martin, E. E. & Hanks, G. E. Swallowing function in patients with esophageal cancer treated with concurrent radiation and chemotherapy. Cancer 71, 281-286 (1993).
167. Kassam, Z. et al. A phase I/II study to evaluate the toxicity and efficacy of accelerated fractionation radiotherapy for the palliation of dysphagia from carcinoma of the oesophagus. Clin. Oncol. (R. Coll. Radiol.) 20, 53-60 (2008).
168. Kumar, S. et al. A randomised trial of radiotherapy compared with cisplatin chemo-radiotherapy in patients with unresectable squamous cell cancer of the esophagus. Radiother. Oncol. 83, 139-147 (2007).
169. Cooper, J. S. et al. Chemoradiotherapy of locally advanced esophageal cancer: long-term follow-up of a prospective randomized trial (RTOG 85-01). Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. JAMA 281, 1623-1627 (1999).
170. Roussel, A. et al. Palliative therapy of inoperable oesophageal carcinoma with radiotherapy and methotrexate: final results of a controlled clinical trial. Int. J. Radiat. Oncol. Biol. Phys. 16, 67-72 (1989).
171. Homs, M. Y. et al. Single-dose brachytherapy versus metal stent placement for the palliation of dysphagia from oesophageal cancer: multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 364, 1497-1504 (2004).
172. Bergquist, H. et al. Stent insertion or endoluminal brachytherapy as palliation of patients with advanced cancer of the esophagus and gastroesophageal junction. Results of a randomized, controlled clinical trial. Dis. Esophagus 18, 131-139 (2005).
173. Raijman, I., Siddique, I., Ajani, J. & Lynch, P. Palliation of malignant dysphagia and fistulae with coated expandable metal stents: experience with 101 patients. Gastrointest. Endosc. 48, 172-179 (1998).
174. Morgan, R. A. et al. Malignant esophageal fistulas and perforations: management with plastic-covered metallic endoprostheses. Radiology 204, 527-532 (1997).
175. Dubecz, A. et al. Esophageal stenting for malignant and benign disease: 133 cases on a thoracic surgical service. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 92, 2028-2032 (2011).
176. Sreedharan, A., Harris, K., Crellin, A., Forman, D. & Everett, S. M, Interventions for dysphagia in oesophageal cancer. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD005048 http://dx.doi.org.10.1002/ 14651858.CD005048.pub2.
177. Online analysis; Incidence and Mortality. GLOBOCAN 2008 [online], http://globocan.iarc.fr/(2008).