An overview of ascorbic acid biochemistry

Ankara Universitesi Eczacilik Fakultesi Dergisi

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 233-255

  Hacişevki, Aysun ^a  

^a GAZI UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Antioxidant; Ascorbic acid; Oxidative stress; Vitamin C

Indexed keywords

EID: 84875984867     PISSN: 10153918     EISSN: 25646524     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1501/eczfak_0000000528     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Chatterjee, I.B., Majunder, A.K., Nandi,B.K., Subramadian, N., "Synthesis and some major functions of vitamin C in animals" Ann.NY Acad.Sci., 258, 24-47 (1975).
2. Aguirre, R., May, J.M., "Inflammation in the vascular bed: Importance of vitamin C" Pharmacol.Ther., 119, 96-103 (2008).
3. Bruick, R.K., McKnight, S.L., "A conserved family of prolyl-4-hydroxylases that modify" Science, 294, 1337-1340 (2001).
4. Myllyla, R., Majamaa, K., Gunzler, V., Hanauske-Abal, H.M., Kivirikko, K.I., "Ascorbate is consumed stoichiometrically in the uncoupled reactions catalyzed by prolyl-4-hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase" J.Biol.Chem., 259, 5403-5405 (1984).
5. Tolbert, B.M., Downing, M., Carlson, R.W., et al. "Chemistry and metabolism of ascorbic acid and ascorbate sulfate" An. NY Acad. Sci., 258, 48-69 (1975).
6. Packer, L., Fuchs, J., "Vitamin C in health and disease" Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, Basel, Hong Kong (1997).
7. Arrigoni, O., De Tulio, M.C., "Ascorbic acid: much more than just an antioxidant" Biochim.Biophys.Acta, 1569, 1-9 (2002).
8. Spencer, R.P., Purdy, S., Hoeldtke, R., et al. "Studies on intestinal absorption of L-ascorbic acid-1-C14" Gastroenterology, 44, 768-773 (1963).
9. Spencer, R.P., Bow, T.M., "In vitro transport of radiolabeled vitamins by the small intestines" J.Nucl.Med., 5, 251-258 (1964).
10. Stevenson, N.R., "Active transport of L-ascorbic acid in the human ileum" Gastroenterology, 67, 952-956 (1974).
11. Stevenson, N.R., Brush, M.K., "Existence and characteristic of Na+-dependent active transport of ascorbic acid in guinea pig" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 22, 318-326 (1969).
12. Hornig, D., Weber, F., Wiss, O., "Site of intestinal absorption of ascorbic acid in guinea pigs and rats" Biochem.Biophys.Res.Comm., 52, 168-172 (1973).
13. Buettner, G.R., "The pecking order of free radicals and antioxidants: lipid peroxidation, alpha-tocopherol, and ascorbate" Arch.Biochem.Biophys., 300, 535-543 (1993).
14. Coassin, M., Tomasi, A., Vannini, V., Ursini, F., "Enzymatic recycling of oxidized ascorbate in pig heart: one electron vs two-electron pathway" Arch.Biochem.Biophys., 290, 458-462 (1991).
15. Mehlhorn, R.J., "Ascorbate- and dehydroascorbic acid-mediated reduction of free radicals in the human erythrocyte" J.Biol.Chem., 266, 2724-2731 (1991).
16. Bielski, B.H., Richter, H.W., Chan, P.C., "Some properties of the ascorbate free radical" Ann.NY Acad.Sci., 258, 231-237 (1975).
17. Winkler, B.S., "In vitro oxidation of ascorbic acid and its prevention by GSH" Biochim.Biophys.Acta, 925, 258-264 (1987).
18. Chatterjee, I.B., "Biosynthesis of L-ascorbate in animals" Methods Enzymol., 18, 28-34 (1970).
19. Nishikimi, M., Fukuyama, R., Minoshima, S., et al. "Cloning and chromosomal mapping of the human nonfunctional gene for L-gulonolactone oxidase, the enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in man" J.Biol.Chem., 269, 13685-13688 (1994).
20. Nishikimi, M., Yagi, K., "Molecular basis for the deficiency in humans of gulonolactone oxidase, a key enzyme for ascorbic acid biosynthesis" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 54, 1203S-1208S (1991).
21. Ashwell, G., Kanfer, J., Smiley, J.D., Burns, J.J., "Metabolism of ascorbic acid and related uronic acids, aldonic acids and pentoses" Ann.NY.Acad.Sci., 92, 105-114 (1961).
22. Fituri, N., Allawi, N., Bentley, M., Costello, J., " Urinary and plasma oxalate during ingestion of pure ascorbic acid: a re-evaluation" Eur.Uro., 9, 312-315 (1983).
23. Kallneri A., Hornig, D., Pellikka, R., "Formation of carbon dioxide from ascorbate in man" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 41, 609-613 (1985).
24. Duarte, T.L., Lunec, J., "Review:When is an antioxidant not an antioxidant? A review of novel actions and reactions of vitamin C" Free Rad.Res., 39(7), 671-686 (2005).
25. Rose, R.C., Bode, A.M., "Biology of free-radical scavengers-an evaluation of ascorbate" FASEB J., 7, 1135-1142 (1993).
26. Buettner, G.R., Jurkiewicz, B.A., "Catalytic metals, ascorbate and free radicals: Combinations to avoid" Radiat.Res., 145, 532-541 (1996).
27. May, J.M., "Is ascorbic acid an antioxidant for the plasma membrane" FASEB J., 13, 995-1006 (1999).
28. May, J.M., Qu, Z.C., Li, X., "Requirement for GSH in recycling of ascorbic acid in endothelial cells" Biochem.Pharmacol., 62, 873-881 (2001).
29. Wilson, J.X., "The physiological role of dehydroascorbic acid" FEBS Lett., 527, 5-9 (2002).
30. Woollard, K.J., Loryman, C.L., Meredith, E., Bevan, R., Shaw, J.A., Lunec, J., Griffiths, H.R., "Effects of oral vitamin C on monocyte: Endothelial call adhesion in healthy subjects" Biochem.Biophys.Res.Cmmun., 294, 1161-1168 (2002).
31. Astley, S.B., Elliott, R.M., Archer, D.B., Southon, S., "Evidence that dietary supplementation with carotenoids and carotenoid-rich foods modulates the DNA damage: Repair balance in human lymphocytes" Br.J.Nutr., 91, 63-72 (2004).
32. Szeto, Y.T., Kwok, T.C.Y., Benzie, I.F.F., "Effects of a long-term vegeterian diet on biomarkers of antioxidant status and cardiovascular disease risk" Nutrition, 20, 863-866 (2004).
33. 2-induced DNA damage in human lymphocytes" Br.J.Nutr., 84, 195-202 (2000).
34. Choi, S.W., Benzie, I.F.F., Collins, A.R., Hannigan, B.M., Strain, J.J., "Vitamin C and E: Acute interactive effects on biomarkers of antioxidant defense and oxidative stres" Mutat.Res., 551, 109-117 (2004).
35. Levine, M., Conrycantilena, C., Wang, Y.H., Welch, R.W., Washko, P.W., Dhariwal, K.R., Park, J.B., Lazarev, A., Graumlich, J.F., King, J., Cantilena, L.R., "Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: Evidence for a recommended dietary allowance" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci. USA, 93, 3704-3709 (1996).
36. Tsukaguchi, H., Tokui, T., Mackenzie, B., Berger, U.V., Chen, X.Z., Wang, Y.X., Brubaker, R.F., Hediger, M.A., "A family of mammallian Na+-dependent L-ascorbic acid transporters" Nature, 399, 70-75 (1999).
37. Vera, J.C., Rivas, C.I., Fischbarg, J., Golde, D.W., "Mammallian facilitative hexose transporters mediate the transport of dehydroascorbic acid" Nature, 364, 79-82 (1993).
38. Welch, R.W., Wang, Y.H., Crossman, A., Park, J.B., Kirk, K.L., Levine, M., "Accumulation of vitamin C (ascorbate) and its oxidized metabolite dehydroascorbic acid occurs by sperate mechanisms" J.Biol.Chem., 270, 12584-12592 (1995).
39. Rumsey, S.C., Kwon, O., Xu, G.W., Burant, C.F., Simpson, I., Levine, M., "Glucose transporter isoforms Glut 1 and Glut 3 transport dehydroascorbic acid" J.Biol.Chem., 272, 18982-18989 (1997).
40. Ames, B.N., Shigenaga, M.K., Hagen, T.M., "Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 90(17), 7915-7922 (1994).
41. Villacorta, L., Azzi, A., Zingg, J.M., "Regulatory role of vitamins E and C on extracellular matrix components of the vascular system" Molecular Aspects of Med., 28, 507-537 (2007).
42. Barnes, M.J., "Function of ascorbic acid in collagen metabolism" Ann.NY Acad.Sci., 258, 264-277 (1975).
43. Diliberto, E.J., Daniels, A.J., "Multicompartmental secretion of ascorbate and its dual role in dopamine β-hydroxylation" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 54, 1163S-1172S (1991).
44. Eipper, B.A., Mains, R.E., "The role of ascorbate in the biosynthesis of neuroendocrine peptides" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 54, 1153S-1156S (1991).
45. Tolbert, L.C., Thomas, T.N., Middaugh, L.D., Zemp, J.W., "Effect of ascorbic acid on neurochemical, behavioral, and physiological systems mediated by catecholamines" Life Sci., 25, 2189-2195 (1979).
46. Desole, M.S., Anania, A., Esposito, G., "Neurochemical and behavioral changes induced by ascorbic acid and d-amphetamine in the rat" Pharmacol.Res.Comm., 19, 441-450 (1987).
47. Alcain, F.J., Buron, M.I., "Ascorbate on cell growth and diffrentiation" J.Bioenergy.Biomembr., 26(4), 393-398 (1994).
48. Ulrich-Merzenich, G., Metzner, C., Schiermeyer, B., Vetter, H., "Vitamin c and vitamin E antagonistically modulate human vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cell DNA synthesis and proliferation" Eur.J.Nutr., 41(1), 27-34 (2002).
49. Ivanov, V.O., Ivanova, S.V., Niedzwecki, A., "Ascorbate affects proliferation of guinea-pig vascular smooth muscle cells by direct and extracellular matrix-mediated effects" J.Mol.Cell.Cardiol., 29(12), 3293-3303 (1997).
50. Reboucne, C.J., "Ascorbic acid and carnitine biosynthesis" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 54, 1147S-1152S (1991).
51. Nelson, P.J., Pruit, R.E., Henderson, L.L., "Effect of ascorbic acid deficiency on the in vivo synthesis of carnitine" Biochim.Biophys.Acta, 672, 123-127 (1981).
52. Ha, T.Y., Otsuka, M., Arakawa, N., "the effect of graded doses of ascorbic acid on the tissue carnitine and plasma lipid concentrations" J.Nutr.Sci.Vitaminol., 36, 227-234 (1990).
53. Reboucne, C.J., "Renal handling of carnitine in experimental vitamin C deficiency" Metabolism, 44, 1639-1643 (1995).
54. Cameron, E., Pauling, L., "Ascorbic acid and the glycosaminoglycans. An Orthomolecular approach to cancer and other diseasea" Oncology, 27(2), 181-192 (1973).
55. Naidu, K.A., "Vitamin C in human health and disease is stil a mystery? An overview" Nutr.J., 2(1), 7 (2003).
56. Goswami, T., Rolfs, A., Hediger, M.A., "Iron transport: emerging roles in health and disease" Biochem.Cell.Biol., 80(5), 679-689 (2002).
57. Teucher, B., Olivares, M., Cori, H., "Enhancers of iron absorption: ascorbic acid and other organic acids" Int.J.Vitam.Nutr.Res., 74(6), 403-419 (2004).
58. Samuni, A., Aronovitch, J., Godinger, D., Chevion, M., Czapski, G., " On the cytotoxicity of vitamin C and metal ions. A site-specific Fenton Mechanism" Eur.J.Biochem., 137(1-2), 119-124 (1983).
59. Proteggente, A.R., Rehman, A., Halliwell, B., Rice-Evans, C.A., "Potential problems of ascorbate and iron supplementation: pro-oxidant effect in vivo?" Biochem.Biophys.Res.Commun., 277(3), 535-540 (2000).
60. Klee, C.B., Ren, H., Wang, X., "Regulation of the calmodulin-stimulated protein phosphatase, calcineurin" J.Biol.Chem., 273(22), 13367-13370 (1998).
61. Wang, X., Culotta, V.C., Klee, C.B., "Superoxide dismutase protects calcineurin from inactivation" Nature, 383(6599), 434-437 (1996).
62. Rose, R.C., Bode, A.M., "Biology of free radical scavengers: an evaluation of ascorbate" FASEB J., 87(12), 1135-1142 (1993).
63. Frei, B., England, L., Ames, B.N., " Ascorbate is an outstanding antioxidant in human blood plasma" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 86(16), 6377-6381 (1989).
64. Jialal, I., Vega, G.L., Grundy, S.M., "Physiologic levels of ascorbate inhibit the oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein" Atherosclerosis, 82(3), 185-191 (1990).
65. Sato, K., Niki, E., Shimasaki, H., "Free radical-mediated chain oxidation of low density lipoprotein and its synergistic inhibition by vitamim E and vitamin C" Arch.Biochem.Biophys., 279(2), 402-405 (1990).
66. Martin, A., Frei, B., "Both intracellular and extracellular vitamin C inhibit atherogenic modification of LDL by human vascular endothelial cells" Arterioscler.Thromb.Vasc.Biol., 17(8), 1583-1590 (1997).
67. Lehr, H.A., Frei, B., Arfors, K.E., "Vitramin C prevents cigarette smoke-induced leucocyte aggregation and adhesion to endothelium in vivo" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 91(16), 7688-7692 (1994).
68. Lehr, H.A., Frei, B., Olofsson, A.M., Carew, T.E., Arfors, K.E., "Protection from oxidized LDL-induced leucocyte adhesion to microvascular and macrovascular endothelium in vivo by vitamin C but not by vitamin E" Circulation, 91(5), 1525-1532 (1995).
69. Lehr, H.A., Weyrich, A.S., Saetzler, R.K., Jurek, A., Arfors, K.E., Zimmerman, G.A., Prescott, S.M., McIntyre, T.M., "Vitamin C blocks inflammatory platelet-activating factor mimetics created by cigarette smoking" J.Clin.Invest., 99(10), 2358-2364 (1997).
70. Tousoulis, D., Davies, G., TouTouzas, P., "Vitamin C increases nitric oxide availability in coronary atherosclerosis" Ann.Intern.Med., 131(2), 156-157 (1999).
71. TouTouzas, P.C., Tousoulis, D., Davies, G.J., "Nitric oxide synthesis in atherosclerosis" Eur.Heart J., 19(10), 1504-1511 (1998).
72. Kinlay, S., Behrendt, D., Fang, J.C., Delagrange, D., Morrow, I., Witztum, J.L., Rifai, N., Selwyn, A.P., Creager, M.A., Ganz, P., "Long-term effect of combined vitamins E and C on coronary and peripheral endothelial function " J.Am.Coll.Cardiol., 43(4), 629-634 (2004).
73. Halliwell, B., "Vitamin C: poison, prophylactic or panacea?" Trends.Biochem.Sci., 24, 255-259 (1999).
74. Nishikimi, M., "Oxidation of ascorbic acid with superoxide anion generated by the xanthine-xanthine oxidase system" Biochem.Biophys.Res. Commun., 63, 463-468 (1975).
75. Hemila, H., Roberts, P., Wikstrom, M., "Activated polymorphonuclear leucocytes consume vitamin C" FEBS Lett., 178, 25-30 (1984).
76. Anderson, R., Lukey, P.T., "A biological role for ascorbate in the selective neutralisation of extracellular phagocyte-derived oxidants" Ann.NY Acad.Sci., 498, 229-247 (1987).
77. Bodanes, R.S., Chan, P.C., "Ascorbic acid as a scavenger of singlet oxygen" FEBS Lett., 105, 195-196 (1979).
78. Anderson, R., Theron, A.J., "Physiological potential of ascorbate, β-carotene and α-tocopherol individually and in combination in the prevention of tissue damage, carcinogenesis and immune dysfunction mediated by phagocyte-derived reactive oxidants" World Rev.Nutr.Diet, 62, 27-58 (1990).
79. Halliwell, B., Wasil, M., Grootveld, M., "Biologically significant scavenging of the myeloperoxidase-derived oxidant hypochlorous acid by ascorbic acid" FEBS Lett., 213, 15-18 (1987).
80. Kensler, T.W., Bush, D.M., Kozumbo, W.J., "Inhibition of tumor promotion by a biomimetic superoxide dismutase" Science, 221, 75-77 (1983).
81. McCall, C.E., DeChatelet, L.R., Cooper, M.R., Ashburn, P., "The effects of ascorbic acid on the bacteriocidal mechanisms of neutrophils" J.Infect.Dis., 124, 154-198 (1974).
82. Packer, J.E., Slater, T.F., Wilson, R.L., "Direct observation of a free radical interaction between vitamin E and vitamin c" Nature, 278, 737-738 (1979).
83. Niki, E., Saito, T., Kawakami, A., Kamiya, Y., "Inhibition of oxidation of methyl linoleate in solution by vitamin E and vitamin C" J.Biol.Chem., 259, 4177-4182 (1984).
84. Doba, T.G., Burton, W., Ingold, K.U., "Antioxidant and co-antioxidant activity of vitamin C: the effect of vitamin C, eitheralone or in the presence of vitamin E or a water-soluble vitamin E analogue, upon the peroxidation of aqueous multilamellar phospholipid liposomes" Biochim.Biophys.Acta, 835, 298-303 (1985).
85. Hara, T., Minakami, S., "On functional role of cytochrome b%.II.NADH-linked ascorbate radical reductase activity in microsomes" J.Biochem., 69, 325-330 (1971).
86. Goldenberg, H.,"Insulin inhibits NADH-semidehydroascorbate reductase in rat liver plasma membrane" Biochim.Biophys.Res.Comm., 94, 721-726 (1980).
87. Winkler, B.S., Orselli, S.M., Rex, T.S., "The redox couple between glutathione and ascorbic acid: a chemical and physiological perspective" Free Rad.Biol.Med., 17, 333-349 (1994).
88. Wells, W.W., Xu, D.P., Yang, Y., Rocque, P.A., "Mammallian thioltransferase(glutaredoxin) and protein disulfide isomerase have dehydroascorbate reductase activity" J.Biol.Chem., 265, 15361-15364 (1990).
89. Carmichael, D.F., Morin, J.E., Dixon, J.E., "Purification and characterization of a thiol:protein disulfide oxidoreductase from bovine liver" J.Biol.Chem., 252, 7163-7167 (1977).
90. Luthman, M., Ericksson, S., Holmgren, A., Thelander, L., "Glutathione-dependent hydrogen donor system for calf thymus ribonucleotide diphosphate reductase" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 76, 2158-2162 (1979).
91. Halliwell, B., Gutteridge, J.M.C., "Free radicals in biology and medicine" Oxford: Oxford University Press, (1999).
92. Carr, A.C., Frei, B., "Does vitamin C act as pro-oxidant under physiological conditions?" FASEB J., 13, 1007-1024 (1999).
93. Herbert, V., Shaw, S., Jayatilleke, E., "Vitamin C-driven free radical generation from iron" J.Nutr., 126, 1213S-1220S (1996).
94. Lee, S.H., Oe, T., Blair, I.A., "Vitamin C-induced decomposition of lipid hydroperoxides to endogenous genotoxins" Science, 292, 2083-2086 (2001).
95. Stadtman, E.R., "Ascorbic acid and oxidative inactivation of proteins" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 54 (suppl.6), 1125S-1128S (1991).
96. Evans, M.D., Cooke, M.S., Akil, M., Samanta, A., Lunec, J., "Aberrant processing of oxidative DNA damage in systemic lupus erythematosus" Biochem.Biophys.Res.Commun., 273, 894-898 (2000).
97. Jaruga, P., Jaruga, B., Gackowski, D., Olczak, A., Halota, W., Pawlowska, M., Olinski, R., "Supplementation with antioxidant vitamins prevents oxidative modification of DNA in lymphocytes of HIV-infected patients" Free Rad.Biol.Med., 32, 414-420 (2002).
98. Polidori, M.C., Stahl, W., Eichler, O., Niestroj, I., Sies, H., "Profiles of antioxidants in human plasma" Free Rad.Biol.Med., 30, 456-462 (2001).
99. Cameron, E., Pauling, L., "Supplemental ascorbate in the supportive treatment of cancer: Prolongation of survival times in terminal human cancer" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 73, 3685-3689 (1976).
100. Cameron, E., Pauling, L., Leibovitz, B., "Ascorbic acid and cancer: A review" Cancer Res., 39, 663-681 (1979).
101. Koch, C.J., Howell, R.L., Biaglow, J.E., "Ascorbate anion potentiates cytotoxicity of nitroaromatic compounds under hypoxic and anoxic conditions" Br.J.Cancer, 39, 321-329 (1979).
102. Prasad, K.N., Sinha, P.K., Ramanujam, M., Sakamoto, A., "Sodium ascorbate potentiates the growth inhibitory effect of certain agents on neuroblastoma cells in culture" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 76, 829-832 (1979).
103. Park, C.H., Amare, M., Savin, M.A., Hoogstraten, B., "Growth suppression of human leukemic cells in vitro by L-ascorbic acid" Cancer Res., 40, 1062-1065 (1980).
104. Steinmetz, K.A., Potter, J.D., "Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention:A review" J.Am.Diet Assoc., 96, 1027-1039 (1996).
105. Bozkir, A., Simsek, B., Güngör, A., Torun, M., "Ascorbic acid and uric acid levels in lung cancer patients" J.Clin.Pharm.Therap., 24, 43-47 (1999).
106. Bjelakovic, G., Nikolova, D., Simonetti, R.G., Gluud, C., "Antioxidant supplements for prevention of gastrointestinal cancers: A systematic review and meta-analysis" Lancet, 364, 1219-1228 (2004).
107. Bazzano, L.A., He, J., Ogden, L.G., Loria, C.M., Vupputuri, S., Myers, L., Whelton, P.K., "Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of cardiovascular disease in US adults: The first national health and nutrition examination survey epidemiologic follow-up study" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 76, 93-99 (2002).
108. Gonenc, A., Hacisevki, A., Bakkaloglu, B., Soyagir, A., Karagoz, H., Torun, M., Simsek, B., "Oxidative stress is decreased in off-pump vs. on-pump coronary artery surgery" J.Biochem.Mol.Biol., 39(4), 377-382 (2006).
109. Khaw, K.T., Bingham, S., Welch, A., Luben, R., Wareham, N., Oakes, S., Day, N., "Relation between plasma ascorbic acid and mortality in men and women in Epic-Norfolk prospective study: A prospective population study" Lancet, 357, 657-663 (2001).
110. May, J.M., "How does ascorbic acid prevent endothelial dysfunction?" Free Rad.Biol.Med., 28, 1421-1429 (2000).
111. Huang, A., Vita, J.A., Venema, R.C., Keaney, J.F., "Ascorbic acid enhances endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity by increasing intracellular tetrahydrobiopterin" J.Biol.Chem., 275, 17399-17406 (2000).
112. Herbert,V., "Antioxidants, pro-oxidants, and their effects" JAMA, 272, 1659 (1994).
113. Levine, M., Conry-Cantilena, C., Wang, Y., "Vitamin C pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers: Evidence for a recommended diatary allowance" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 93, 3704-3709 (1996).
114. Levine, M., Dhariwal, K.R., Welch, R.W., "Determination of optimal vitamin C requirements in humans" Am.J.Clin.Nutr., 62, 1347S-1356S (1995).
115. Gershoff, S.N., "Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): new roles, new requirements?" Nutr.Rev., 51, 313-326 (1993).
116. Harper, A.E., "The recommended dietary allowances for ascorbic acid" Ann.NY Acad.Sci., 258, 491-497 (1975).
117. Kallner, A., "Requirement for vitamin C based on metabolic studies" Ann.NY Acad.Sci., 498, 418-423 (1987).
118. Rivers, J.M., "Safety of high-level vitamin C ingestion" Int.J.Vitam.Nutr.Res., 30, 95-102 (1989).
119. Levine, M., wang, Y.H., Padayatty, s.J., Morrow, J., "A new recommended dietary allowance of vitamin C for healthy young women" Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci., USA, 98, 9842-9846 (2001).