Measurement of endotoxins in bioaerosols at workplace: A critical revie

Annals of Occupational Hygiene

Volumn 57, Issue 2, 2013, Pages 137-172

  Duquenne, Philippe ^a   Marchand, Geneviève ^b   Duchaine, Caroline ^c  

^a INSTITUT NATIONAL DE RECHERCHE ET DE SÉCURITÉ   (France)

^b INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE ROBERT SAUVÉ EN SANTÉ ET EN SÉCURITÉ DU TRAVAIL   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

bioaerosols; endotoxins; LAL assay; sampling and analysis; standard method

Indexed keywords

AIRBORNE ENDOTOXIN; BIBLIOGRAPHIC REVIEWS; BIOAEROSOLS; CURRENT STATUS; ENDOTOXINS; GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES; MEASUREMENT METHODS; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS; OUTER MEMBRANE; STANDARD METHOD; STANDARD PROTOCOLS; WORKER EXPOSURE;

STANDARDIZATION;

AEROSOLS;

ENDOTOXIN;

AIR POLLUTANT; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; HUMAN; METHODOLOGY; MICROBIOLOGY; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; REPRODUCIBILITY; REVIEW; STANDARD;

AIR MICROBIOLOGY; AIR POLLUTANTS, OCCUPATIONAL; ENDOTOXINS; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; HUMANS; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; REFERENCE STANDARDS; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS;

EID: 84874227637     PISSN: 00034878     EISSN: 14753162     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mes051     Document Type: Review

References (213)

1. Association Francaise de Normalisation. (2008) Air des lieux de travail: prélévement d'aérosol à l'aide d'une cassette (orifice 4 mm). Paris: Editions Association Francaise de Normalisation
2. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1999a) Bioaerosols: assessment and control. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH
3. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1999b) Threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH, p. 85
4. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (2010) TLVs® and BEIs® - threshold limit values for chemical substances and biological exposure indices. Cincinnati, OH: ACGIH
5. American Industrial Hygiene Association. (2005) Field guide for the determination of biological contaminants in environmental samples. In Hung L-L, David Miller J, Dillon HK, editors. 2nd edn. American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, USA. ISBN: 978-1-931504-62-1. 284 p
6. Albrecht A, Kiel K, Kolk A. (2007) Strategies and methods for investigation of airborne biological agents from work environments in Germany. Int J Occup Saf Ergon; 13: 201-13
7. Alwis KU, Mandryk J, Hocking AD. (1999) Exposure to biohazards in wood dust: bacteria, fungi, endotoxins, and (1->3)-beta-d-glucans. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 14: 598-608
8. Alwis KU, Milton DK. (2006) Recombinant factor C assay for measuring endotoxin in house dust: comparison with LAL, and (1-> 3)-beta-d-glucans. Am J Ind Med; 49: 296-300
9. Anderson WB, Slawson RM, Mayfield CI. (2002) A review of drinking-water-associated endotoxin, including potential routes of human exposure. Can J Microbiol; 48: 567-87
10. ASTM. (2007) E2144-1 - Standard Practice for Personal Sampling and Analysis of Endotoxin in Metalworking Fluid Aerosols in Workplace Atmospheres. ASTM International (American Society for Testing and Material), Wet Conshohocken
11. Astrakianakis G, Seixas N, Camp Jet al.. (2006) Cotton dust and endotoxin levels in three Shanghai textile factories: a comparison of samplers. J Occup Environ Hyg; 3: 418-27
12. Attwood P, Versloot P, Heederik Det al.. (1986) Assessment of dust and endotoxin levels in the working environment of Dutch pig farmers: a preliminary study. Ann Occup Hyg; 30: 201-8
13. Baron PA, Khanina A, Martinez AB, Grinshpun SA. (2002) Investigation of filter bypass leakage and a test for aerosol sampling cassettes. Aerosol Sci Technol; 36: 857-865
14. BGIA. (2002) 9450 - Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Endotoxinkonzentration in der luft am arbeitsplatz. BGIA-Arbeitsmappe, Kennzahl 28: 1-7
15. Binding N, Jaschinski S, Werlich Set al.. (2004) Quantification of bacterial lipopolysaccharides (endotoxin) by GC-MS determination of 3-hydroxy fatty acids. J Environ Monit; 6: 65-70
16. Bønløkke JH, Mériaux A, Duchaine Cet al.. (2009) Seasonal variations in work-related health effects in swine farm workers. Ann Agric Environ Med; 16: 43-52
17. Bracker A, Storey E, Yang Cet al.. (2003) An outbreak of hypersensitivity pneumonitis at a metalworking plant: a longitudinal assessment of intervention effectiveness. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 18: 96-108
18. Brisson MJ, Archuleta MM. (2009) The real issue with wall deposits in closed filter cassettes-what's the sample? J Occup Environ Hyg; 6: 783-8
19. Buchan RM, Soderholm SC, Tillery MI. (1986) Aerosol sampling efficiency of 37 mm filter cassettes. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 47: 825-31
20. Burdorf A. (2005) Identification of determinants of exposure: consequences for measurement and control strategies. Occup Environ Med; 62: 344-50
21. Caroff M, Karibian D. (2003) Structure of bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Carbohydr Res; 338: 2431-47
22. Caroff M, Karibian D, Cavaillon JMet al.. (2002) Structural and functional analyses of bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Microbes Infect; 4: 915-26
23. Carty CL, Gehring U, Cyrys Jet al.. (2003) Seasonal variability of endotoxin in ambient fine particulate matter. J Environ Monit; 5: 953-8
24. Comité Européen de Normalisation. (1993) Workplace atmospheres: size fraction definitions for measurements of airborne particles in the workplace (CEN standard EN 481). CEN, Brussels, Belgium
25. Comité Européen de Normalisation. (1995) Workplace atmospheres: guidance for the assessment of exposure by inhalation to chemical agents for comparison with limit values and measurement strategy (CEN standard EN 689). CEN, Brussels, Belgium
26. Comité Européen de Normalisation. (2000) Workplace atmosphere - Guidelines for measurement of airborne micro-organisms and endotoxin. (CEN standard EN 13098). CEN, Brussels, Belgium
27. Comité Européen de Normalisation. (2003) Workplace atmosphere - Determination of airborne endotoxins. (CEN standard EN 14031). CEN, Brussels, Belgium
28. Chang CW, Chung H, Huang CFet al.. (2001) Exposure assessment to airborne endotoxin, dust, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide in open style swine houses. Ann Occup Hyg; 45: 457-65
29. Chun DT, Chew V, Bartlett Ket al.. (2002) Second inter-laboratory study comparing endotoxin assay results from cotton dust. Ann Agric Environ Med; 9: 49-53
30. Chun DT, Chew V, Bartlett Ket al.. (2000) Preliminary report on the results of the second phase of a round- robin endotoxin assay study using cotton dust. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 15: 152-7
31. Chun DT, Bartlett K, Gordon Tet al.. (2006) History and results of the two inter-laboratory round robin endotoxin assay studies on cotton dust. Am J Ind Med; 49: 301-6
32. Coggins MA, Hogan VJ, Kelly Met al.. (2012) Workplace exposure to bioaerosols in podiatry clinics. Ann Occup Hyg; 56: 746-53
33. Cooper JF. (1990) Resolving LAL test interferences. J Parenter Sci Technol; 44: 13-5
34. Degobbi C, Saldiva P, Rogers C. (2011) Endotoxin as modifier of particulate matter toxicity: a review of the literature. Aerobiologia; 27: 97-105
35. Dutch Expert Committee on Occupational Standards. (2010) Endotoxins: health-based recommended occupational limit. Publication No. 2010/04OSH. The Hague: The Health Council of the Netherlands
36. Delfino RJ, Staimer N, Tjoa T. (2011) Personal endotoxin exposure in a panel study of school children with asthma. Environ Health; 10: 69
37. Dehus O, Hartung T, Hermann C. (2006) Endotoxin evaluation of eleven lipopolysaccharides by whole blood assay does not always correlate with limulus amebocyte lysate assay. J Endotoxin Res; 12: 171-80
38. Deloge-Abarkan M, Ha TL, Robine Eet al.. (2007) Detection of airborne Legionella while showering using liquid impingement and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH). J Environ Monit; 9: 91-7
39. DeLucca AJ 2nd, Palmgren MS. (1987) Seasonal variation in aerobic bacterial populations and endotoxin concentrations in grain dusts. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 48: 106-10
40. Demange M, Görner P, Elcabache JMet al.. (2002) Field comparison of 37-mm closed-face cassettes and IOM samplers. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 17: 200-8
41. Ding JL, Ho B. (2001) A new era in pyrogen testing. Trends Biotechnol; 19: 277-81
42. Ding JL, Navas MA 3rd, Ho B. (1995) Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of factor C cDNA from the Singapore horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda. Mol Marine Biol Biotechnol; 4: 90-103
43. Douwes J, McLean D, van der Maarl Eet al.. (2000) Worker exposures to airborne dust, endotoxin and beta(1,3)-glucan in two New Zealand sawmills. Am J Ind Med; 38: 426-30
44. Douwes J, Versloot P, Hollander Aet al.. (1995) Influence of various dust sampling and extraction methods on the measurement of airborne endotoxin. Appl Environ Microbiol; 61: 1763-9
45. Douwes J, Heederik D. (1997) Epidemiologic investigations of endotoxins. Int J Occup Environ Health; 3: S26-S31
46. Duchaine C, Thorne PS, Mériaux Aet al.. (2001) Comparison of endotoxin exposure assessment by bioaerosol impinger and filter-sampling methods. Appl Environ Microbiol; 67: 2775-80
47. Dungan R, Leytem A. (2009) The effect of extraction, storage, and analysis techniques on the measurement of airborne endotoxin from a large dairy. Aerobiologia; 25: 265-273
48. Dungan RS. (2011) Airborne endotoxin from indoor and outdoor environments: effect of sample dilution on the kinetic limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay. J Occup Environ Hyg; 8: 147-53
49. Duquenne P, Gorner P, Ambroise D, Fabries J-F, Greff-Mirguet G. (2004) Mesurage des endotoxines dans l'air au cours du travail dans les égouts. In '20éme Congrés Français sur les Aérosols (CFA 2004)'. Paris: ASFERA. pp. 92-99
50. Duquenne P, Simon X, Koehler Vet al.. (2012) Documentation of bioaerosol concentrations in an indoor composting facility in France. J Environ Monit; 14: 409-19
51. Dutil S, Meriaux A, de Latremoille MCet al.. (2009) Measurement of airborne bacteria and endotoxin generated during dental cleaning. J Occup Environ Hyg; 6: 121-30
52. Dutkiewicz J, Krysinska-Traczyk E, Sk'rska Cet al.. (2002) Exposure to airborne microorganisms and endotoxin in a potato processing plant. Ann Agric Environ Med; 9: 225-35
53. European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare. (2010) Bacterial endotoxins. In The European pharmacopoeia. 6th edn. EDQM (European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines & HealthCare), Strasbourg, France
54. Eduard W, Lacey J, Karlsson Ket al.. (1990) Evaluation of methods for enumerating microorganisms in filter samples from highly contaminated occupational environments. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 51: 427-36
55. Epstein E, Wu N, Youngberg C, Croteau G. (2001) Dust and bioaerosols at a biosolids composting facility. Compost Sci Util; 9: 250-255
56. Erridge C, Bennett-Guerrero E, Poxton IR. (2002) Structure and function of lipopolysaccharides. Microbes Infect; 4: 837-51
57. Fahlbusch B, Koch A, Douwes Jet al.. (2003) The effect of storage on allergen and microbial agent levels in frozen house dust. Allergy; 58: 150-3
58. Faurby S, King TL, Obst Met al.. (2010) Population dynamics of American horseshoe crabs-historic climatic events and recent anthropogenic pressures. Mol Ecol; 19: 3088-100
59. Fishwick D, Allan LJ, Wright Aet al.. (2001) Assessment of exposure to organic dust in a hemp processing plant. Ann Occup Hyg; 45: 577-83
60. Frankel M, Timm M, Hansen EWet al.. (2012) Comparison of sampling methods for the assessment of indoor microbial exposure. Indoor Air; 22: 405-14
61. Friberger P. (1985) The design of a reliable endotoxin test. Prog Clin Biol Res; 189: 139-49
62. Gilbert Y, Veillette M, Meriaux Aet al.. (2010) Metalworking fluid-related aerosols in machining plants. J Occup Environ Hyg; 7: 280-9
63. Gioffré A, Marramao A, Iannò A. (2012) Airborne microorganisms, endotoxin, and dust concentration in wood factories in Italy. Ann Occup Hyg; 56: 161-9
64. Gladding T, Thorn J, Stott D. (2003) Organic dust exposure and work-related effects among recycling workers. Am J Ind Med; 43: 584-591
65. Golbabaei F, Islami F. (2000) Evaluation of workers' exposure to dust, ammonia and endotoxin in poultry industries at the province of Isfahan, Iran. Ind Health; 38: 41-6
66. G'ra A, Mackiewicz B, Krawczyk Pet al. (2009) Occupational exposure to organic dust, microorganisms, endotoxin and peptidoglycan among plants processing workers in Poland. Ann Agric Environ Med; 16: 143-50
67. Gordon T, Galdanes K, Brosseau L. (1992) Comparison of sampling media for endotoxin-contaminated aerosol. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 7: 472-477
68. Görner P, Fabriés JF, Duquenne Pet al.. (2006) Bioaerosol sampling by a personal rotating cup sampler CIP 10-M. J Environ Monit; 8: 43-8
69. Görner P, Simon X, Wrobel Ret al.. (2010) Laboratory study of selected personal inhalable aerosol samplers. Ann Occup Hyg; 54: 165-87
70. Halstensen AS, Nordby KC, Wouters IMet al.. (2007) Determinants of microbial exposure in grain farming. Ann Occup Hyg; 51: 581-92
71. Han T, Mainelis G. (2012) Investigation of inherent and latent internal losses in liquid-based bioaerosol samplers. J Aero Sci; 45: 58-68
72. Harper M, Andrew ME. (2006) Airborne endotoxin in woodworking (joinery) shops. J Environ Monit; 8: 73-8
73. Heederik D, Brouwer R, Biersteker Ket al.. (1991) Relationship of airborne endotoxin and bacteria levels in pig farms with the lung function and respiratory symptoms of farmers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health; 62: 595-601
74. Heederik D, Douwes J. (1997) Towards an occupational exposure limit for endotoxins? Ann Agric Environ Med; 4: 17-19
75. Heinrich J, Pitz M, Bischof W, Krug N, Borm P (2003) Endotoxin in fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM2.5-10) particle mass of ambient aerosols. A temporo-spatial analysis. Atmos Environ; 37: 3659-3667
76. Heldal KK, Madsø L, Huser POet al.. (2010) Exposure, symptoms and airway inflammation among sewage workers. Ann Agric Environ Med; 17: 263-8
77. Hirayama C, Sakata M. (2002) Chromatographic removal of endotoxin from protein solutions by polymer particles. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci; 781: 419-32
78. Hollander A, Heederik D, Versloot Pet al.. (1993) Inhibition and enhancement in the analysis of airborne endotoxin levels in various occupational environments. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 54: 647-53
79. Holst O, Ulmer AJ, Brade Het al.. (1996) Biochemistry and cell biology of bacterial endotoxins. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol; 16: 83-104
80. Hryhorczuk D, Curtis L, Scheff Pet al.. (2001) Bioaerosol emissions from a suburban yard waste composting facility. Ann Agric Environ Med; 8: 177-85
81. Hwang SH, Park DU, Joo SIet al.. (2011) Comparison of endotoxin levels and Gram-negative bacteria under different conditions in microbial laboratories and a biowaste site. Chemosphere; 85: 135-9
82. Huntington MK, Williams JF, Mackenzie CD. (2007) Endotoxin contamination in the dental surgery. J Med Microbiol; 56(Pt 9): 1230-4
83. Hurley JC. (1995) Endotoxemia: methods of detection and clinical correlates. Clin Microbiol Rev; 8: 268-92
84. Hurley JC, Tosolini FA (1992) A quantitative micro-assay for endotoxin and correlation with bacterial density in urine. J Microbiol Meth; 16: 91-99
85. Hussain M, Madl P, Khan A. (2011) Lung deposition predictions of airborne particles and the emergence of contemporary diseases, Part-I. The Health; 2: 51-59
86. Hyvärinen A, Roponen M, Tiittanen Pet al.. (2006) Dust sampling methods for endotoxin - an essential, but underestimated issue. Indoor Air; 16: 20-7
87. International Commission on Radiological Protection. (1994) Human respiratory tract model for radiological protection (ICRP Publication 66). Ann ICRP; 24: 1-482
88. Institut National De Recherche Et de Sécurité (2010) Fiche METROPOL 089/V02: Endotoxines. Recueil-Métropol. Available at http://www.inrs.fr/
89. International Standards Organisation. (1995) Air quality - particle size fraction definitions for health-related sampling. ISO Standard 7708. Geneva, Switzerland
90. Jacobs RR, Chun D. (2004) Inter-laboratory analysis of endotoxin in cotton dust samples. Am J Ind Med; 46: 333-7
91. Jensen PA, Schafer MP. (1998) Sampling and characterization of bioaerosols. NIOSH Manual of analytical methods; 84-112
92. Jensen PA, Todd WF, Davis GNet al.. (1992) Evaluation of eight bioaerosol samplers challenged with aerosols of free bacteria. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 53: 660-7
93. Jorgensen JH, Smith RF. (1974) Measurement of bound and free endotoxin by the limulus assay. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med; 146: 1024-31
94. Kauffer E, Wrobel R, Görner Pet al.. (2010) Site comparison of selected aerosol samplers in the wood industry. Ann Occup Hyg; 54: 188-203
95. Kenny LC, Aitken R, Chalmers Cet al.. (1997) A collaborative European study of personal inhalable aerosol sampler performance. Ann Occup Hyg; 41: 135-53
96. Kenny LC, Stancliffe JD, Crook Bet al.. (1998) The adaptation of existing personal inhalable aerosol samplers for bioaerosol sampling. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 59: 831-41
97. Kirychuk SP, Reynolds SJ, Koehncke NKet al.. (2010) Endotoxin and dust at respirable and nonrespirable particle sizes are not consistent between cage- and floor-housed poultry operations. Ann Occup Hyg; 54: 824-32
98. Ko G, Simmons Iii OD, Likirdopulos CAet al.. (2010) Endotoxin levels at Swine farms using different waste treatment and management technologies. Environ Sci Technol; 44: 3442-8
99. Korpi A, Pasanen A-L, Pasanen P, Kalliokoski P. (1997) Microbial growth and metabolism in house dust. Int Biodeter Biodegr; 40: 19-27
100. KosPlinke M.A. (1999) Chlamydial lipopolysaccharide. Biochim Biophys Acta; 1455: 387-402
101. Kromhout H. (2002) Design of measurement strategies for workplace exposures. Occup Environ Med; 59: 349-54; quiz 354,286
102. Kunjundzic E, Hernandez M, Miller SL. (2006) Particle size distributions and concentrations of airborne endotoxin using novel collection methods in homes during the winter and summer seasons. Indoor Air; 16: 216-26
103. Laitinen S, Nevalainen A, Kotimaa Met al.. (1992) Relationship between bacterial counts and endotoxin concentrations in the air of wastewater treatment plants. Appl Environ Microbiol; 58: 3774-6
104. Laitinen SK. (1999) Importance of sampling, extraction and preservation for the quantitation of biologically active endoto. Ann Agric Environ Med; 6: 33-8
105. Laitinen S, Kangas J, Husman Ket al.. (2001) Evaluation of exposure to airborne bacterial endotoxins and peptidoglycans in selected work environments. Ann Agric Environ Med; 8: 213-9
106. Lane SR, Nicholls PJ, Sewell RD. (2004) The measurement and health impact of endotoxin contamination in organic dusts from multiple sources: focus on the cotton industry. Inhal Toxicol; 16: 217-29
107. Liao VH, Chou WC, Chio CPet al.. (2010) A probabilistic approach to quantitatively assess the inhalation risk for airborne endotoxin in cotton textile workers. J Hazard Mater; 177: 103-8
108. Li C-S. (1999) Evaluation of Microbial Samplers for Bacterial Microorganisms. Aerosol Sci Technol; 30: 100-108
109. Li SN, Lundgren DA, Rovell-Rixx D. (2000) Evaluation of six inhalable aerosol samplers. AIHA J; 61: 506-16
110. Liebers V, Brüning T, Raulf-Heimsoth M. (2006) Occupational endotoxin-exposure and possible health effects on humans. Am J Ind Med; 49: 474-91
111. Liebers V, Raulf-Heimsoth M, Linsel Get al.. (2007) Evaluation of quantification methods of occupational endotoxin exposure. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A; 70: 1798-805
112. Liebers V, Raulf-Heimsoth M, Brüning T. (2008) Health effects due to endotoxin inhalation (review). Arch Toxicol; 82: 203-10
113. Liebers V, Stubel H, Düser Met al.. (2009) Standardization of whole blood assay for determination of pyrogenic activity in organic dust samples. Int J Hyg Environ Health; 212: 547-56
114. Lin XA, Reponen T, Willeke K, Grinshpun SA, Foarde KK, Ensor DS. (1999) Long-term sampling of airborne bacteria and fungi into a non-evaporating liquid. Atmosph Environ; 33: 4291-4298
115. Linnainmaa M, Kiviranta H, Laitinen Jet al.. (2003) Control of workers' exposure to airborne endotoxins and formaldehyde during the use of metalworking fluids. AIHA J; 64: 496-500
116. Loomis D, Kromhout H. (2004) Exposure variability: concepts and applications in occupational epidemiology. Am J Ind Med; 45: 113-22
117. Madsen AM. (2006a) Airborne endotoxin in different background environments and seasons. Ann Agric Environ Med; 13: 81-6
118. Madsen AM. (2006b) Exposure to airborne microbial components in autumn and spring during work at Danish biofuel plants. Ann Occup Hyg; 50: 821-31
119. Madsen AM, Hansen VM, Nielsen SHet al.. (2009) Exposure to dust and endotoxin of employees in cucumber and tomato nurseries. Ann Occup Hyg; 53: 129-38
120. Madsen AM, Sharma AK. (2008) Sampling of high amounts of bioaerosols using a high-volume electrostatic field sampler. Ann Occup Hyg; 52: 167-76
121. Madsen AM, Nielsen SH. (2010) Airborne endotoxin associated with particles of different sizes and affected by water content in handled straw. Int J Hyg Environ Health; 213: 278-84
122. Marchand G, Barrette MC, Lesage J. (2009) Analytical Method 322 - Endotoxin analysis. Available at http://www.irsst.qc.ca/media/documents/ PubIRSST/M-332-en.pdf, 15 p
123. Marchand G, Lalonde M, Beaudet Yet al.. (2007) Documentation of the endotoxins present in the ambient air of cotton fiber textile mills in Québec. J Environ Monit; 9: 869-76
124. Mattsby-Baltzer I, Lindgren K, Lindholm Bet al.. (1991) Endotoxin shedding by enterobacteria: free and cell-bound endotoxin differ in limulus activity. Infect Immun; 59: 689-95
125. McKenzie JH, Alwis KU, Sordillo JEet al.. (2011) Evaluation of lot-to-lot repeatability and effect of assay media choice in the recombinant factor C assay. J Environ Monit; 13: 1739-45
126. Mehta AJ, Wang XR, Eisen EAet al.. (2008) Work area measurements as predictors of personal exposure to endotoxin and cotton dust in the cotton textile industry. Ann Occup Hyg; 52: 45-54
127. Milton DK, Gere RJ, Feldman HAet al.. (1990) Endotoxin measurement: aerosol sampling and application of a new limulus method. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 51: 331-7
128. Milton DK, Johnson DK, Park JH. (1997) Environmental endotoxin measurement: interference and sources of variation in the limulus assay of house dust. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 58: 861-7
129. Morey PR. (2007) Microbiological sampling strategies in indoor environments. In Yang CSaHP, editor. Sampling and analysis of indoor microorganisms. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 273
130. Morgenstern V, Bischof W, Koch Aet al.. (2006) Measurements of endotoxin on ambient loaded PM filters after long-term storage. Sci Total Environ; 370: 574-9
131. Morgenstern V, Carty CL, Gehring U, Cyrys J, Bischof W, Heinrich J. (2005) Lack of spatial variation of endotoxin in ambient particulate matter across a German metropolitan area. Atmosph Environ; 39: 6931-6941
132. Mueller-Anneling L, Avol E, Peters JMet al.. (2004) Ambient endotoxin concentrations in PM10 from Southern California. Environ Health Perspect; 112: 583-8
133. Nordic Expert Group for Criteria Documentation of Health Risks from Chemicals, Dutch Expert Committee on Occupational Standards. (2011) 144-Endotoxins. Arbeteoch Hälsa 45, 1-53
134. Nielsen BH, Nielsen EM, Breum NO. (2000) Seasonal variation in bioaerosol exposure during biowaste collection and measurements of leaked percolate. Waste Manage Res; 18: 64-72
135. Nielsen M, Würtz H, Nielsen BH, Breum NO, Poulsen OM. (1997) Relationship between different bioaerosol parameters sampled from the breathing zone of waste collectors - identification of the most important parameters. Ann Agric Environ Med; 4: 81-85
136. Noss I, Wouters IM, Visser Met al.. (2008) Evaluation of a low-cost electrostatic dust fall collector for indoor air endotoxin exposure assessment. Appl Environ Microbiol; 74: 5621-7
137. Noss I, Doekes G, Sander Iet al.. (2010) Passive airborne dust sampling with the electrostatic dustfall collector: optimization of storage and extraction procedures for endotoxin and glucan measurement. Ann Occup Hyg; 54: 651-8
138. Novitsky TJ, Schmidt-Gengenbach J, Remillard JF. (1986) Factors affecting recovery of endotoxin adsorbed to container surfaces. J Parenter Sci Technol; 40: 284-6
139. Oldenburg M, Latza U, Baur X. (2007) Exposure-response relationship between endotoxin exposure and lung function impairment in cotton textile workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health; 80: 388-95
140. Olenchock SA, Lewis DM, Mull JC. (1989) Effects of different extraction protocols on endotoxin analyses of airborne grain dusts. Scand J Work Environ Health; 15: 430-5
141. Oppliger A, Hilfiker S, Vu Duc T. (2005a) Influence of seasons and sampling strategy on assessment of bioaerosols in sewage treatment plants in Switzerland. Ann Occup Hyg; 49: 393-400
142. Oppliger A, Rusca S, Charriére Net al.. (2005b) Assessment of bioaerosols and inhalable dust exposure in Swiss sawmills. Ann Occup Hyg; 49: 385-91
143. Osornio-Vargas AR, Bonner JC, Alfaro-Moreno Eet al.. (2003) Proinflammatory and cytotoxic effects of Mexico City air pollution particulate matter in vitro are dependent on particle size and composition. Environ Health Perspect; 111: 1289-93
144. O'Toole J, Sinclair M, Jeavons Tet al.. (2009) Influence of sample preservation on endotoxin measurement in water. Water Sci Technol; 60: 1615-9
145. Park JH, Spiegelman DL, Burge HAet al.. (2000) Longitudinal study of dust and airborne endotoxin in the home. Environ Health Perspect; 108: 1023-8
146. Paudyal P, Semple S, Niven Ret al.. (2011) Exposure to dust and endotoxin in textile processing workers. Ann Occup Hyg; 55: 403-9
147. Peters M, Fritz P, Bufe A. (2012) A bioassay for determination of lipopolysaccharide in environmental samples. Innate Immun; 18: 694-9
148. Prazmo Z, Dutkiewicz J, Sk'rska Cet al.. (2003) Exposure to airborne Gram-negative bacteria, dust and endotoxin in paper factories. Ann Agric Environ Med; 10: 93-100
149. Prescott ML, Harley JP, Klein DA. (2003) Microbiology. Eds De boeck Université (Brussels, Belgium), 1137p
150. Radon K, Danuser B, Iversen Met al.. (2002) Air contaminants in different European farming environments. Ann Agric Environ Med; 9: 41-8
151. Rongo LM, Msamanga GI, Burstyn Iet al.. (2004) Exposure to wood dust and endotoxin in small-scale wood industries in Tanzania. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol; 14: 544-50
152. Rapala J, Lahti K, Räsänen LAet al.. (2002) Endotoxins associated with cyanobacteria and their removal during drinking water treatment. Water Res; 36: 2627-35
153. Reiman M, Uitti J. (2000) Exposure to microbes, endotoxins and total dust in cigarette and cigar manufacturing: an evaluation of health hazards. Ann Occup Hyg; 44: 467-73
154. Reynolds SJ, Black DW, Borin SSet al.. (2001) Indoor environmental quality in six commercial office buildings in the midwest United States. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 16: 1065-77
155. Reynolds SJ, Milton DK. (1993) Comparison of methods for analysis of airborne endotoxin. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 9: 761-767
156. Reynolds SJ, Milton DK, Heederik Det al.. (2005) Interlaboratory evaluation of endotoxin analyses in agricultural dusts-comparison of LAL assay and mass spectrometry. J Environ Monit; 7: 1371-7
157. Reynolds SJ, Nakatsu J, Tillery Met al.. (2009) Field and wind tunnel comparison of four aerosol samplers using agricultural dusts. Ann Occup Hyg; 53: 585-94
158. Reynolds SJ, Thorne PS, Donham KJet al.. (2002) Comparison of endotoxin assays using agricultural dusts. AIHA J; 63: 430-8
159. Roslansky PF, Novitsky TJ. (1991) Sensitivity of limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) to LAL-reactive glucans. J Clin Microbiol; 29: 2477-83
160. Roy CJ, Thorne PS. (2003) Exposure to particulates, microorganisms, beta(1-3)-glucans, and endotoxins during soybean harvesting. AIHA J; 64: 487-95
161. Rylander R. (1997) Evaluation of the risks of endotoxin exposures. Int J Occup Environ Health; 3: S32-S35
162. Rylander R. (2002) Endotoxin in the environment - exposure and effects. J Endotoxin Res; 8: 241-52
163. Rylander R. (2006) Endotoxin and occupational airway disease. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol; 6: 62-6
164. Rylander R, Bake B, Fischer JJet al.. (1989) Pulmonary function and symptoms after inhalation of endotoxin. Am Rev Respir Dis; 140: 981-6
165. Saito R, Cranmer BK, Tessari JDet al.. (2009) Recombinant factor C (rFC) assay and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis of endotoxin variability in four agricultural dusts. Ann Occup Hyg; 53: 713-22
166. Samadi S, Heederik DJ, Krop EJet al.. (2010) Allergen and endotoxin exposure in a companion animal hospital. Occup Environ Med; 67: 486-92
167. Samadi S, Wouters IM, Houben Ret al.. (2009) Exposure to inhalable dust, endotoxins, beta(1->3)-glucans, and airborne microorganisms in horse stables. Ann Occup Hyg; 53: 595-603
168. Saraf A, Larsson L, Burge Het al.. (1997) Quantification of ergosterol and 3-hydroxy fatty acids in settled house dust by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: comparison with fungal culture and determination of endotoxin by a limulus amebocyte lysate assay. Appl Environ Microbiol; 63: 2554-9
169. Saraf A, Park JH, Milton DKet al.. (1999) Use of quadrupole GC-MS and ion trap GC-MS-MS for determining 3-hydroxy fatty acids in settled house dust: relation to endotoxin activity. J Environ Monit; 1: 163-8
170. Schins RP, Lightbody JH, Borm PJet al.. (2004) Inflammatory effects of coarse and fine particulate matter in relation to chemical and biological constituents. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol; 195: 1-11
171. Schlosser O, Huyard A, Cartnick Ket al.. (2009) Bioaerosol in composting facilities: occupational health risk assessment. Water Environ Res; 81: 866-77
172. Schlosser O, Huyard A, Catalan V. (2011) Exposure to dust, endotoxin and airborne microorganisms in wastewater sludge thermal drying units. Water Sci Technol; 64: 1073-80
173. Semple S, Devakumar D, Fullerton DGet al.. (2010) Airborne endotoxin concentrations in homes burning biomass fuel. Environ Health Perspect; 118: 988-91
174. Sharma AK, Wallin H, Jensen AK. (2007) High volume electrostatic field-sampler for collection of fine particle bulk samples. Atmos Environ; 41: 369-381
175. Sigsgaard T, Bonefeld-Jørgensen EC, Hoffmann HJet al.. (2005) Microbial cell wall agents as an occupational hazard. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol; 207(2 SUPPL.): 310-9
176. Simpson JC, Niven RM, Pickering CAet al.. (1999) Comparative personal exposures to organic dusts and endotoxin. Ann Occup Hyg; 43: 107-15
177. Singh TS, Bello B, Mabe ODet al.. (2010) Workplace determinants of endotoxin exposure in dental healthcare facilities in South Africa. Ann Occup Hyg; 54: 299-308
178. Singh U, Reponen T, Cho KJ, Grinshpun SA, Adhikari A, Levin L, Indugula R, Green BJ. (2011) Airborne endotoxin and β-d-glucan in PM1 in agricultural and home environments. Aerosol Air Qual Res; 11: 376-386
179. Smit LA, Spaan S, Heederik D. (2005) Endotoxin exposure and symptoms in wastewater treatment workers. Am J Ind Med; 48: 30-9
180. Sonesson A, Larsson L, Schütz Aet al.. (1990) Comparison of the limulus amebocyte lysate test and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for measuring lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins) in airborne dust from poultry-processing industries. Appl Environ Microbiol; 56: 1271-8
181. Spaan S, Wouters IM, Oosting Iet al.. (2006) Exposure to inhalable dust and endotoxins in agricultural industries. J Environ Monit; 8: 63-72
182. Spaan S, Heederik DJ, Thorne PSet al.. (2007a) Optimization of airborne endotoxin exposure assessment: effects of filter type, transport conditions, extraction solutions, and storage of samples and extracts. Appl Environ Microbiol; 73: 6134-43
183. Spaan S, Schinkel JM, Wouters IM, Preller EA, Tjoe Nij EIM, Heederik D, Tielemans ELJP. (2007b) Endotoxin: from database to measurement strategy. Gefahrst Reinhalt Luft; 9: 377-383
184. Spaan S, Smit LA, Eduard Wet al.. (2008a) Endotoxin exposure in sewage treatment workers: investigation of exposure variability and comparison of analytical techniques. Ann Agric Environ Med; 15: 251-61
185. Spaan S, Schinkel J, Wouters IMet al.. (2008b) Variability in endotoxin exposure levels and consequences for exposure assessment. Ann Occup Hyg; 52: 303-16
186. Spaan S, Doekes G, Heederik Det al.. (2008c) Effect of extraction and assay media on analysis of airborne endotoxin. Appl Environ Microbiol; 74: 3804-11
187. Spankie S, Cherrie JW. (2012) Exposure to grain dust in Great Britain. Ann Occup Hyg; 56: 25-36
188. Stephenson DJ, Lillquist DR, DeRosso FDet al.. (2004) Side-by-side comparison of three sampling methods for aerosolized endotoxin in a wastewater treatment facility. J Environ Health; 67: 16-9
189. Stewart I, Schluter PJ, Shaw GR. (2006) Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharides and human health - a review. Environ Health; 5: 7
190. Su HJ, Chen HL, Huang CFet al.. (2002) Airborne fungi and endotoxin concentrations in different areas within textile plants in Taiwan: a 3-year study. Environ Res; 89: 58-65
191. Sullivan JD, Valois FW, Waston SW (1976) Endotoxins: the limulus amoebocyte lysate system. In 'Mechanisms in bacterial toxicology'. (Ed. AW Bernheimer) pp. 218-236. (John Wiley and Sons,: New York and London)
192. Sykes P, Allen JA, Wildsmith JD, Jones KP. (2009) An analysis of employee exposure to organic dust at large-scale composting facilities. J Phys Conf Ser; 151, 012064
193. Thorn J. (2001) Seasonal variations in exposure to microbial cell wall components among household waste collectors. Ann Occup Hyg; 45: 153-6
194. Thorn J, Beijer L, Jonsson Tet al.. (2002) Measurement strategies for the determination of airborne bacterial endotoxin in sewage treatment plants. Ann Occup Hyg; 46: 549-54
195. Thorne PS, Bartlett KH, Phipps Jet al.. (2003) Evaluation off ive extraction protocols for quantification of endotoxin in metalworking fluid aerosol. Ann Occup Hyg; 47: 31-6
196. Thorne PS, Perry SS, Saito Ret al.. (2010) Evaluation of the limulus amebocyte lysate and recombinant factor C assays for assessment of airborne endotoxin. Appl Environ Microbiol; 76: 4988-95
197. Thorne PS, Reynolds SJ, Milton DKet al.. (1997) Field evaluation of endotoxin air sampling assay methods. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J; 58: 792-9
198. Traversi D, Alessandria L, Schilirò T, Gilli. G. (2011) Size-fractionated PM10 monitoring in relation to the contribution of endotoxins in different polluted areas. Atmos Environ; 45: 3515-3521
199. Vincent JH. (2005) Health-related aerosol measurement: a review of existing sampling criteria and proposals for new ones. J Environ Monit; 7: 1037-53
200. Visser MJ, Spaan S, Arts HJet al.. (2006) Influence of different cleaning practices on endotoxin exposure at sewage treatment plants. Ann Occup Hyg; 50: 731-6
201. Walls EA, Berkson J. (2003) Effects of blood extraction on horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus). Fish Bull; 101: 457-459
202. Walters M, Milton D, Larsson Let al.. (1994) Airborne environmental endotoxin: a cross-validation of sampling and analysis techniques. Appl Environ Microbiol; 60: 996-1005
203. Wang H, Reponen T, Lee SAet al.. (2007) Size distribution of airborne mist and endotoxin-containing particles in metalworking fluid environments. J Occup Environ Hyg; 4: 157-65
204. Wang Z, Reponen T, Grinshpun AS, Gorny LR, Willeke K. (2001) Effect of sampling time and air humidity on the bioefficiency of filter samplers for bioaerosol collection. J Aerosol Sci; 32: 661-674
205. White EM. (2002) Environmental endotoxin measurement methods: standardization issues. Appl Occup Environ Hyg; 17: 606-9
206. Williams KL, Robert K, Nnalue NA. (2001) Endotoxins, Pyrogens, LAL testing and Depyrogenation. second ed. Drugs and the pharmaceutical sciences, ed. J. Swarbrick. Vol. 111. Wilmington: Marcel Dekker, Inc. 372p
207. Wouters IM, Spaan S, Douwes Jet al.. (2006) Overview of personal occupational exposure levels to inhalable dust, endotoxin, beta(1->3)-glucan and fungal extracellular polysaccharides in the waste management chain. Ann Occup Hyg; 50: 39-53
208. Würtz H, Sigsgaard T, Valbjørn Oet al.. (2005) The dustfall collector - a simple passive tool for long-term collection of airborne dust: a project under the Danish Mould in Buildings program (DAMIB). Indoor Air; 15 SUPPL. 9: 33-40
209. Yokota H, Kiyonaga H, Kaniwa Het al.. (2001) Adsorption of endotoxins on glass in the presence of cationic proteins. J Pharm Biomed Anal; 25: 1001-7
210. Zhang GH, Baek L, Koch C. (1988) New microassay for quantitation of endotoxin using limulus amebocyte lysate combined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol; 26: 1464-70
211. Zhang GH, Baek L, Buchardt Oet al.. (1994a) Differential blocking of coagulation-activating pathways of limulus amebocyte lysate. J Clin Microbiol; 32: 1537-41
212. Zhang GH, Baek L, Nielsen PEet al.. (1994b) Sensitive quantitation of endotoxin by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with monoclonal antibody against limulus peptide C. J Clin Microbiol; 32: 416-22
213. Zucker B-A, Draz AM, Muller W. (2000) Comparison of filtration and impingement for sampling airborne endotoxin. J Aerosol Sci; 31: 751-755