Biochemistry and cell biology of bacterial endotoxins

FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 1996, Pages 83-104

  Holst, Otto ^a   Ulmer, Artur J ^a   Brade, Helmut ^a   Flad, Hans Dieter ^a   Rietschel, Ernst Th ^a  

^a RESEARCH CENTER BORSTEL   (Germany)

Author keywords

bioactivity of lipopolysaccharide; endotoxin; gram negative bacteria; lipopolysaccharide; lipopolysaccharide structure

Indexed keywords

ENDOTOXIN; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE;

BIOCHEMISTRY; BIOSYNTHESIS; CONFERENCE PAPER; CYTOLOGY; DRUG ACTIVITY; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL;

ANIMALS; ANTIGENS, CD14; ENDOTOXINS; HUMANS; LEUKOCYTES; LIPID A; LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDES; MACROPHAGES;

EID: 0030560592     PISSN: 09288244     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0928-8244(96)00071-5     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (229)

1. [1] Pfeiffer, R. (1892) Untersuchungen über das Choleragift. Z. Hyg. 11, 393-412.
2. [2] Rietschel, E.Th. and Brade, H. (1992) Bacterial endotoxins. Sci. Am. 267, 54-61.
3. [3] Rietschel, E.Th., Brade, L., Lindner, B. and Zähringer, U. (1992) Biochemistry of endotoxins. In: Bacterial Endotoxic Lipopolysaccharides, Vol. 1 (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 3-41. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
4. [4] Rietschel, E.Th., Kirikae, T., Schade, F.U., Mamat, U., Schmidt, G., Loppnow, H., Ulmer, A.J., Zähringer, U., Seydel, U., Di Padova, F., Schreier, M. and Brade, H. (1994) Bacterial endotoxin: Molecular relationships of structure to activity and function. FASEB J. 218, 217-225.
5. [5] Nogare, D. (1991) Southwestern Internal Medicine Conference: Septic Shock. Am. J. Med. Sci. 302, 50-65.
6. [6] Vogel, S.N. and Hogan, M.M. (1990) Role of cytokines in endotoxin-mediated host responses. In: Immunophysiology: The Role of Cells and Cytokines in Immunity and Inflammation (Oppenheim, J.J. and Shevach, E.M., Eds.), pp. 238-258. Oxford University Press, New York.
7. [7] Galanos, C., Freudenberg, M.A., Katschinski, T., Salomao, R., Mossmann, H. and Kumazawa, Y. (1992) Tumor necrosis factor and host response to endotoxin. In: Bacterial Endotoxic Lipopolysaccharides, Vol. 1 (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 75-102. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
8. [8] Dinarello, C.A. (1984) Interleukin-1. Rev. Infect. Dis. 6, 51-95.
9. [9] Beutler, B. and Cerami, A. (1989) The biology of cachectin/TNF. A primary mediator of the host response. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 7, 625-655.
10. [10] Loppnow, H. (1994) LPS, recIL1 and smooth muscle cell-IL1 activate vascular cells by specific mechanisms. In: Bacterial Endotoxins: Basic Science to Anti-Sepsis Strategies (Levin, J., Van Deventer, S.J.H.. Van der Poll., T. and Sturk, A., Eds.), pp. 309-321. Wiley-Liss, New York.
11. [11] Palam, C., Cassone, A., Serbousek, D., Pearson, C.A. and Djeu, J.Y. (1992) Lactoferrin release and interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor production by human polymorphonuclear cells stimulated by various lipopolysaccharides: Relationship to growth inhibition of Candida albicans. Infect. Immun. 60, 4604-4611.
12. [12] Haziot, A., Tsuberi, B.-Z. and Goyert, S.M. (1993) Neutrophil CD14: Biochemical properties and role in the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α in response to lipopolysaccharide. J. Immunol. 150, 5556-5565.
13. [13] Mattern, T., Thanhäuser, A., Reiling, N., Toellner, K.-M., Duchrow, M., Kusumoto, S., Rietschel E.Th., Ernst, M., Brade, H., Flad, H.-D. and Ulmer, A.J. (1994) Endotoxin and lipid A stimulate proliferation of human T cells in the presence of autologous monocytes. J. Immunol. 153, 2996-3004.
14. [14] Galanos, C., Lüderitz, O., Rietschel, E.Th. and Westphal, O. (1977) Newer aspects of the chemistry and biology of bacterial lipopolysaccharides, with special reference to their lipid A component. In: International Review of Biochemistry, Biochemistry of Lipids II, Vol. 14 (Goodwin, T.W., Ed.), pp. 239-335. University Park Press, Baltimore.
15. [15] Lüderitz, O., Freudenberg, M.A., Galanos, C., Lehmann, V., Rietschel, E.Th. and Shaw, D.H. (1982) Lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria. In: Membrane Lipids of Procaryotes. Current Topics in Membranes and Transport, Vol. 17 (Razin, S. and Rottem, S., Eds.), pp. 79-151. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
16. [16] Jann, K. and Jann, B. (1984) Structure and biosynthesis of O-antigens. In: Handbook of Endotoxin, Vol. 1. Chemistry of Endotoxin (Rietschel, E.Th., Ed.), pp. 138-186. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
17. [17] Knirel, Y.A. (1990) Polysaccharide antigens of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 17, 273-304.
18. [18] Knirel, Y.A. and Kochetkov, N.K. (1994) The structure of lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria, III. The structure of O-antigens: A review. Biochem. (Moscow) 59, 1325-1383.
19. [19] Whitfield, C. and Valvano, M.A. (1993) Biosynthesis and expression of cell-surface polysaccharides in Gram-negative bacteria. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 35, 135-246.
20. [20] Schnaitman, C.A. and Klena, J.D. (1993) Genetics of lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis in enteric bacteria. Microbiol. Rev. 57, 655-682.
21. [21] Rick, P.D., Hubbard, G.L. and Barr, K. (1994) Role of the rfe gene in the synthesis of the O8 antigen in Escherichia coli K-12. J. Bacteriol. 176, 2877-2884.
22. [22] Alexander, D.C. and Valvano, M.A. (1994) Role of the rfe gene in the biosynthesis of the Escherichia coli O7-specific lipopolysaccharide and other O-specific polysaccharides containing N-acetylglucosamine. J. Bacteriol. 176, 7079-7084.
23. [23] Stevenson, G., Kessler, A. and Reeves, P.R. (1995) A plasmid-borne O-antigen chain length determinant and its relationship to other chain length determinants. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 125, 23-30.
24. [24] Kido, N., Torgov, V.I., Sugiyama, T., Uchiya, K., Sugihara, H., Komatsu, T, Kato, N. and Kann, K. (1995) Expression of the O9 polysaccharide of Escherichia coli: Sequencing of the E. coli O9 rfb gene cluster, characterization of mannosyl transferases and evidence for an ATP-binding cassette transport system. J. Bacteriol. 177, 2178-2187.
25. [25] Bastin, D.A. and Reeves, P.R. (1995) Sequence and analysis of the O antigen gene (rfb) cluster of Escherichia coli O111. Gene 164, 17-23.
26. [26] Morona, R., Brown, M.H., Yeadon, J., Heutzenroeder, M.W. and Manning, P.A. (1991) Effect of lipopolysaccharide core synthesis on the production of Vibrio cholerae O-antigen in Escherichia coli K-12. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 82, 279-286.
27. [27] Cheah, K.-C., Beger, D.W. and Manning, P.A. (1991) Molecular cloning and genetic analysis of the rfb region from Shigella flexneri type 6 in Escherichia coli K-12. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 83, 213-218.
28. [28] Yao, Z., Liu, H. and Valvano, M.A. (1992) Acetylation of O-specific lipopoly-saccharides from Shigella flexneri 3a and 2a occurs in Escherichia coli K-12 carrying cloned S. flexneri 3a and 2a rfb genes. J. Bacteriol. 174, 7500-7508.
29. [29] McGrath, B.C. and Osborn, M.J. (1991) Localization of the terminal steps of O-antigen biosynthesis in Salmonella typhimurium. J. Bacteriol. 173, 649-654.
30. [30] McGrath, B.C. and Osborn, M.J. (1991) Evidence for energy-dependant transposition of core lipopolysaccharide across the inner membrane of Salmonella typhimurium. J. Bacteriol. 173, 3134-3137.
31. [31] Holst, O. and Brade, H. (1992) Chemical structure of the core region of bacterial lipopolysaccharides. In: Bacterial Endotoxic Lipopolysaccharides, Vol. 1 (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 135-170. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
32. [32] Linger, F.M. (1981) The chemistry and biological significance of 3-deoxy-D-manno-2-octulosonic acid (Kdo). Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem. 38, 323-387.
33. [33] Coleman, Jr., W.G. (1983) The rfaD gene codes for ADP-L-glycero-D-manno-heptose-6-epimerase: An enzyme required for lipopolysaccharide core biosynthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 258, 1985-1990.
34. [34] Kocsis, B. and Kontrohr, T. (1984) Isolation of adenosine 5′-diphosphate-L-glycero-D-manno-heptose, the assumed substrate of heptose transferase(s), from Salmonella minnesota R595 and Shigella sonnei Re mutants. J. Biol. Chem. 259, 11858-11860.
35. [35] Ding, L., Seto, B.L., Ahmed, S.A. and Coleman, W.G. (1994) Purification and properties of the Escherichia coli K-12 NAD-dependant nucleotide diphosphosugar epimerase, ADP-L-glycero-D-mannoheptose 6-epimerase. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 24384-24390.
36. +: Description of a novel deep-rough chemotype. Eur. J. Biochem. 177, 483-492.
37. [37] Kawahara, K., Brade, H., Rietschel, E.Th. and Zähringer, U. (1987) Studies on the chemical structure of the core-lipid A region of the lipopolysaccharide of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus NCTC 10305: Detection of a new 2-octulosonic acid interlinking the core oligosaccharide and lipid A. Eur. J. Biochem. 163, 489-495.
38. [38] Kawahara, K., Isshiki, Y., Ezaki, T., Moll, H., Kosma, P. and Zähringer, U. (1994) Chemical characterization of the inner core-lipid A region of the lipopolysaccharide isolated from Pseudomonas (Burkholderia) cepacia. J. Endotoxin Res. 1, Suppl. 1, 53.
39. [39] Rietschel, E.Th., Brade, H., Brade, L., Kaca, W., Kawahara, K., Lindner, B., Lüderitz, T., Tomita, T., Schade, U., Seydel, U. and Zähringer, U. (1985) Newer aspects of the chemical structure and biological activity of bacterial endotoxins. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 189, 31-50.
40. [40] Holst, O., Röhrscheidt-Andrzejewski, E., Cordes, H.-P. and Brade, H. (1989) Isolation and identification of 3-deoxy-7-O-α-D-galactopyranosyl-D-manno-2-octulopyranosonate from the inner core region of the lipopolysaccharide of Escherichia coli EH100. Carbohydr. Res. 188, 212-218.
41. [41] Holst, O. and Brade, H. (1990) Isolation and identification of 3-deoxy-5-O-α-1-rhamnopyranosyl-D-manno-2-octulopyranosonate from the inner core region of the lipopolysaccharide of Escherichia coli K-12. Carbohydr. Res. 207, 327-331.
42. [42] Brade, H., Tacken, A. and Christian, R. (1987) Isolation and identification of a rhamnosyl-rhamnosyl-3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid trisaccharide from the lipopolysaccharide of Acinetobacter calcoaceticus (10303 NTCC London). Carbohydr. Res. 167, 295-300.
43. [43] Haishima, Y., Holst, O. and Brade, H. (1992) Structural investigation on the lipo-polysaccharide of Escherichia coli rough mutant F653 representing the R3 core type. Eur. J. Biochem. 203, 127-134.
44. [44] Haishima, Y., Holst, O. and Brade, H. (1992) Structural investigation on the lipo-polysaccharide of Escherichia coli rough mutant F653 representing the R3 core type. Correction. Eur. J. Biochem. 207, 1129.
45. [45] Kaca, W., de Jongh-Leuvenink, J., Zähringer, U., Rietschel, E.Th., Brade, H., Verhoef, J. and Sinnwell, V. (1988) Isolation and chemical analysis of 7-O-(2-amino-2-deoxy-α-D-glucopyranosyl)-L-glycero-D-manno-heptose as a constituent of the lipopolysaccharide of the UDP-galactose epimerase-less mutant J-5 of Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae. Carboydr. Res. 179, 289-299.
46. [46] Helander, I.M., Moll, H. and Zähringer, U. (1993) 4-O-(2-amino-2-deoxy-α-D-glucopyranosyl)-3-deoxy-D-manno-2-octulosonic acid, a constituent of lipopolysaccharides of the genus Pectinatus. Eur. J. Biochem. 213, 377-381.
47. [47] Aspinall, G.O., McDonald, A.G., Raju, T.S., Pang, H., Moran, A.P. and Penner, J.L. (1993) Chemical structures of the core regions of Campylobacter jejuni serotypes O:1, O:4, O:23 and O:36 lipopolysaccharides. Eur. J. Biochem. 213, 1017-1027.
48. [48] Aspinall, G.O., McDonald, A.G., Raju, T.S., Pang, H., Kurjanczyk, L.A., Penner, J.L. and Moran, A.P. (1993) Chemical structure of the core regions of Campylobacter jejuni serotype O:2, lipopolysaccharide. Eur. J. Biochem. 213, 1029-1077.
49. [49] Holst, O., Zähringer, U., Brade, H. and Zamojski, A. (1991) Structural analysis of the heptose/hexose region of the lipopolysaccharide from Escherichia coli K-12 strain W3100. Carbohydr. Res. 215, 323-335.
50. [50] Radziejewska-Lebrecht, J. and Mayer, H. (1989) The core region of Proteus mirabilis R110/1959 lipopolysaccharide. Eur J. Biochem. 183, 573-581.
51. [51] Volk, W.A., Salomonsky, N.L. and Hunt, D. (1972) Xanihomonas sinensis cell wall lipopolysaccharide. I. Isolation of 4,7-anhydro- and 4,8-anhydro-3-deoxy-octulosonic acid following acid hydrolysis of Xanthomonas sinensis lipopolysaccharide. J. Biol. Chem. 247, 3881-3887.
52. [52] Brade, H., Galanos, C. and Lüderitz:, O. (1983) Differential determination of the 3-deoxy-D-mannooctulosonic acid residues in lipopolysaccharides of Salmonella minnesota rough mutants. Eur. J. Biochem. 131, 195-200.
53. [53] Tacken, A., Rietschel, E.Th. and Brade, H. (1986) Methylation analysis of the heptose/3-deoxy-D-manno-2-octulosonic acid region (inner core) of the lipopolysaccharide from Salmonella minnesota rough mutants. Carbohydr. Res. 149, 279-291.
54. [54] Brade, H. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1984) α-2 → 4-Interlinked 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic acid disaccharide. A common constituent of enterobacterial lipopolysaccharides. Eur. J. Biochem. 145, 231-236.
55. [55] Holst, O., Broer, W., Thomas-Oates, J.E., Mamat, U. and Brade, H. (1993) Structural analysis of two oligosaccharide bisphosphates from the lipopolysaccharide of a recombinant strain of Escherichia coli F515 (Re chemotype) expressing the genus-specific epitope of Chlamydia lipopolysaccharide. Eur. J. Biochem. 214, 703-710.
56. [56] Holst, O., Thomas-Oates, J.E. and Brade, H. (1994) Preparation and structural analysis of oligosaccharide monophosphates obtained from the lipopolysaccharide of recombinant strains of Salmonella minnesota and Escherichia coli expressing the genus-specific epitope of Chlamydia lipopolysaccharide. Eur. J. Biochem. 222, 183-194.
57. [57] Zähringer, U., Sinnwell, V., Peter-Katalinic, J., Rietschel, E.Th. and Galanos, C. (1993) Isolation and characterization of the tetrasaccharide (bis)phosphate from the glycosyl backbone of Salmonella minnesota and Escherichia coli Re-mutant lipopolysaccharides. Tetrahedron 49, 4193-4200.
58. [58] Vinogradov, E.V., Thomas-Oates, J.E., Brade, H. and Holst, O. (1994) Structural investigation of the lipopolysaccharide from Proteus mirabilis R45 (Re-chemotype). J. Endotoxin Res. 1, 199-206.
59. [59] Bock, K., Vinogradov, E.V., Holst, O. and Brade, H. (1994) Isolation and structural analysis of oligosaccharide phosphates containing the complete carbohydrate chain of the lipopolysaccharide from Vibrio cholerae H11 (non-O1). Eur. J. Biochem. 225, 1029-1039.
60. -. Carbohydr. Res. 269, C1-C7.
61. [61] Masoud, H., Sadovskaya, I., DeKievit, T., Altman, E., Richards, J.C. and Lam, J.S. (1995) Structural elucidation of the lipopolysaccharide core region of the O-deficient mutant strain A28 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa serotype O6 (international antigenic typing scheme). J. Bacteriol. 177, 6718-6726.
62. [62] Knirel, Y.A., Grosskurth, H., Helbig, J.H. and Zähringer, U. (1995) Structures of decasaccharide and tridecasaccharide tetraphosphates isolated by strong alkaline degradation of O-deacylated lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas fluorescent strain ATCC 49271. Carbohydr. Res. 279, 215-226.
63. [63] Severn, W.B., Kelly, R.F., Richards, J.C. and Whitfield, C. (1996) Structure of the core oligosaccharide in the serotype O8 lipopolysaccharide from Klebsiella pneumoniae. J. Bacteriol. 178, 1731-1741.
64. [64] Mäkelä, P.H. and Stocker, B.A.D. (1984) Genetics of lipopolysaccharide In: Handbook of Endotoxin, Vol. 1. Chemistry of Endotoxin (Rietschel, E.Th., Ed.), pp. 59-137. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
65. [65] Austin, E.A., Graves, J.P., Hite, L.A., Parker. C.T. and Schnaitman, C.A. (1990) Genetic analysis of lipopolysaccharide core biosynthesis by Escherichia coli K-12: Insertion mutagenesis of the rfa locus. J. Bacteriol. 172, 5312-5325.
66. [66] Pradel, E. and Schnaitman. C.A. (1991) Effect of rfaH (sfrB) and temperature on expression of rfa genes of Escherichia coli K-12. J. Bacteriol. 173, 6428-6431.
67. [67] Pradel, E., Parker, C.T. and Schnaitman, C.A. (1992) Structures of the rfaB, rfaI, rfaJ and rfaS genes of Escherichi coli K-12 and their roles in assembly of the lipopolysaccharide core. J. Bacteriol. 174, 4736-4745.
68. [68] Klena, J.D., Pradel, E. and Schnaitman, C.A. (1992) Comparison of lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis genes rfaK, rfaL, rfaY and rfaz of Escherichia coli K-12 and Salmonella typhimurium. J. Bacteriol. 174, 4746-4752.
69. [69] Sirisena, D.M., Brozek, K.A., MacLachlan, P.R., Sanderson, K.E. and Raetz, C.R.H. (1992) The rfaC gene of Salmonella typhimurium. Cloning, sequencing and enzymatic function in heptose transfer to lipopolysaccharide. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 18874-18884.
70. [70] Chen, L. and Coleman, W.G. (1993) Cloning and characterisation of the Excherichia coli K-12 rfa-2 (rfaC) gene, a gene required for lipopolysaccharide inner core synthesis. J. Bacteriol. 175, 2534-2540.
71. [71] Sirisena, D.M., MacLachlan, P.R., Liu, S.-L., Hessel, A. and Sanderson, K.E. (1994) Molecular analysis of the rfaD gene, for heptose synthesis and the rfaF gene, for heptose transfer, in lipopolysaccharide synthesis in Salmonella typhimurium. J. Bacteriol. 176, 2379-2385.
72. [72] Clementz, T. and Raetz, C.H.R. (1991) A gene coding for 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic-acid transferase in Excherichia coli. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 9687-9696.
73. [73] Belunis, C.J., Mdluli, K.E., Raetz, C.H.R. and Nano, F.E. (1992) A novel 3-deoxy-D-manno-octulosonic-acid transferase from Chlamydia trachomatis required for expression of the genus-specific epitope. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 18702-18707.
74. [74] Mamat, U., Baumann, M., Schmidt, G. and Brade, H. (1993) The genus-specific lipopolysaccharide epitope of Chlamydia is assembled in C. psittaci and C. trachomatis by glycosyltransferases of low homology. Mol. Microbiol. 10, 935-941.
75. [75] Löbau, S., Mamat, U., Brabetz, W. and Brade, H. (1995) Molecular cloning, sequence analysis and functional characterization of the lipopolysaccharide biosynthetic gene kdtA encoding 3-deoxy-α-D-manno-octulosonic-acid transferase of Chlamydia pneumoniae strain TW-183. Mol. Microbiol. 18, 391-399.
76. [76] Belunis, C.J., Clementz, T., Carty, S.M. and Raetz, C.H.R. (1995) Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and cell growth following inactivation of the kdtA gene in Escherichia coli. J. Biol. Chem. 270, 27646-27652.
77. [77] Zähringer, U., Lindner, B. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1994) Molecular structure of lipid A, the endotoxic center of bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. Biochem. 50, 211-276.
78. [78] Rietschel, E.Th., Wollenweber, H.-W., Brade, H., Zähringer, U., Lindner, B., Seydel, U., Bradaczek, H., Barnickel, G., Labischinski, H. and Griesbrecht, P. (1984) Structure and conformation of the lipid A component of lipopolysaccharides. In: Handbook of Endotoxin, Vol. 1. Chemistry of Endotoxin (Rietschel, E.Th., Ed.), pp. 187-220. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.
79. 31P NMR spectroscopy. J. Biol. Chem. 244, 5918-5925.
80. [80] Zähringer, U., Lindner, B., Seydel, U., Rietschel, E.Th., Naoki, H., Unger, F.M., Imoto, M., Kusumoto, S. and Shiba, T. (1985) Structure of de-O-acylated lipopolysaccharide from the Escherichia coli Re mutant strain F515. Tetrahedron Lett. 26, 6321-6324.
81. [81] Seydel, U., Lindner, B., Wollenweber, H.-W. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1985) Structural studies on the lipid A component of enterobacterial lipopolysaccharides by laser desorption mass spectrometry. Location of acyl groups at the lipid A backbone. Eur. J. Biochem. 145, 505-509.
82. [82] Wollenweber, H.-W. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1990) Analysis of lipopolysaccharide (lipid A) fatty acids. J. Microbiol. Methods 11, 195-211.
83. [83] Hase, S. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1977) The chemical structure of the lipid A component of lipopolysaccharides from Chromobacterium violaceum NCTC 9694. Eur. J. Biochem. 75, 23-34.
84. [84] Wollenweber, H.-W., Seydel, U., Lindner, B., Lüderitz, O. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1984) Nature and location of amidebound (R)-3-acyloxyacyl groups in lipid A of lipopolysaccharides from various gram-negative bacteria. Eur. J. Biochem., 145, 265-272.
85. [85] Mayer, H., Krauss, J.H., Yokota, A. and Weckesser, J. (1990) Natural variants of lipid A. In: Endotoxin (Friedman, H., Klein, T.W., Nakano, M. and Nowotny, A., Eds.), pp. 45-70. Plenum Publ. Corp., New York.
86. [86] Moran, A.P., Zähringer, U., Seydel, U., Scholz, D., Stütz, P. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1991) Structural analysis of the lipid A component of Campylobacter jejuni CCUG 10936 (serotype O:2) lipopolysaccharide: Description of a lipid A containing a hybrid backbone of 2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose and 2,3-diamino-2,3-dideoxy-D-glucose. Eur. J. Biochem. 198, 459-469.
87. [87] Bhat, U.R., Mayer, H., Yokota, A., Hollingsworth, R.I. and Carlson, R.W. (1991) Occurrence of lipid A variants with 27-hydroxyoctacosanoic acid in lipopolysaccharides from members of the family Rhizobiaceae. J. Bacteriol. 173, 2155-2159.
88. [88] Sonesson, A., Jantzen, E., Bryn, K., Larsson, L. and Eng, J. (1989) Chemical composition of a lipopolysaccharide from Legionella pneumophila. Arch. Microbiol. 153, 72-78.
89. [89] Moll, H., Sonesson, A., Jantzen, E., Marre, R. and Zähringer, U. (1992) Identification of 27-oxo-octacosanoic acid and heptacosane-1,27-dioic acid in Legionella pneumophila. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 97, 1-6.
90. [90] Nurminen, M., Rietschel, E.Th. and Brade, H. (1985) Chemical characterization of Chlamydia trachomatis lipopolysaccharide. Infect. Immun. 48, 573-575.
91. [91] Brade, L., Schramek, S., Schade, U. and Brade, H. (1986) Chemical, biological and immunochemical properties of the Chlamydia psittaci lipopolysaccharide. Infect. Immun. 54, 568-574.
92. [92] Bhat, U.R., Carlson, R.W., Busch, M. and Mayer, H. (1991) Distribution and phylogetietic significance of 27-hydroxyoctacosanoic acid in lipopolysaccharides from bacteria belonging to the alpha-2 subgroup of Proteobacteria. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 41, 213-217.
93. [93] Raetz, C.R.H. (1990) Biochemistry of endotoxins. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 59, 129-170.
94. [94] Kelly, T.M., Stachula, A.A., Raetz, C.H.R. and Anderson, M.S. (1993) The firA gene of Escherichia coli encodes UDP-3-O-(R-3-hydroxymyristoyl)-glucosamine TV-acyltransferase. The third step of endotoxin biosynthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 268, 19866-19874.
95. [95] Pfitzner, U., Raetz, C.H.R. and Roderick, S.L. (1995) Crystallisation of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine O-acyltransferase from Escherichia coli. Proteins Struct. Funct. Genet. 22, 191-192.
96. [96] Kusumoto, S. (1992) Chemical synthesis of lipid A. In: Bacterial Endotoxic Lipopolyxaccharides, Vol. I (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 81-105. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
97. [97] Galanos, C., Lüderitz, O., Rietschel, E.Th., Westphal, O., Brade, H., Brade, L., Freudenberg, M., Schade, U., Imoto, M., Yoshimura, H., Kusumoto, S. and Shiba, T. (1985) Synthetic and natural Escherichia coli free lipid A express identical endotoxic activities. Eur. J. Biochem. 148, 1-5.
98. [98] Kotani, S., Takada, H., Tsujimoto, M., Ogawa, T., Takahashi, I., Ikeda, T., Otsuka, K., Shimauchi, H., Kasai, N., Mashimo, J., Nagao, S., Tanaka, A., Tanaka, S., Harada, K., Nagaki, K., Kitamura, H., Shiba, T., Kusumoto, S., Imoto, M. and Yoshimura, H. (1985) Synthetic lipid A with endotoxic and related biological activities comparable to those of a natural lipid A from an Escherichia coli Remutant. Infect. Immun. 49, 225-237.
99. [99] Homma, J.Y., Matsuura, M., Kanegasaki, S., Kawakubo, Y., Kojima, Y., Shibukawa, N., Kumazawa, Y., Yamamoto, A., Tanamoto, K., Yasuda, T., Imoto, M., Yoshimura, H., Kusumoto, S. and Shiba, T. (1985) Structural requirements of lipid A responsible for the functions: A study with chemically synthesized lipid A and its analogues. J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 98, 395-406.
100. [100] Takada, H. and Kotani, S. (1992) Structure-function relationships of lipid A. In: Bacterial Endotoxic Lipopolysaccharides, Vol. I (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 107-134. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
101. [101] Seydel, U. and Brandenburg, K. (1992) Supramolecular structure of lipopolysaccharides and lipid A. In: Bacterial Endotoxic Lipopolysaccharides, Vol. 1 (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 225-250. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
102. [102] Kastowsky, M., Gutberlet, T. and Bradaczek, H. (1992) Molecular modelling of the three-dimensional structure and conformational flexibility of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J. Bacteriol. 174, 4798-4806.
103. [103] Seydel, U., Labischinski, H., Kastowsky, M. and Brandenburg, K. (1993) Phase behaviour, supramolecular structure and molecular conformation of lipopolysaccharide. Immunobiol. 187, 191-211.
104. [104] Brade, H., Brade, L. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1988) Structure activity relationships of bacterial lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins). Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Hyg. Ser. A 268, 151-179.
105. [105] Loppnow, H., Brade. L., Brade, H., Rietschel, E.Th., Kusumoto, S., Shiba, T. and Flad, H.-D. (1986) Induction of human interleukin 1 by bacterial and synthetic lipid A. Eur. J. Immunol. 16, 1263-1267.
106. [106] Imoto, M., Yoshimura, H., Shimamoto, T., Sakaguchi, N., Kusumoto, S. and Shiba, T. (1987) Total synthesis of Escherichia coli lipid A, the endotoxically active principle of cell-surface lipopolysaccharide. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 60, 2205-2214.
107. [107] Kusumoto, S., Yamamoto, M. and Shiba, T. (1984) Chemical synthesis of lipid X and lipid Y, acylglucosamine-1-phosphates isolated from Escherichia coli mutants. Tetrahedron Lett. 25, 3727-3730.
108. [108] Rietschel, E.Th., Brade, L., Schade, U., Seydel, U., Zähringer, U., Kusumoto, S. and Brade, H. (1988) Bacterial endotoxins: Properties and structure of biologically active domains. In: Surface of Microorganisms and their Interactions with the Mammalian Host (Schrinner, E., Richmond, M.H., Seibert, G. and Schwarz, U., Eds.), pp. 1-41. Verlag Chemie, Weinheim.
109. [109] Feist, W., Ulmer, A.J., Musehold, J., Brade, H., Kusumoto, S. and Flad, H.-D. (1989) Induction of tumor necrosis factor-alpha release by lipopolysaccharide and defined lipopolysaccharide partial structures. Immunobiol. 179, 293-307.
110. [110] Wang, M.-H., Flad, H.-D., Feist, W., Brade, H., Kusumoto, S., Rietschel, E.Th. and Ulmer, A.J. (1991) Inhibition of endotoxin-induced interleukin 6 production by synthetic lipid A partial structures in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Infect. Immun. 59, 4655-4664.
111. [111] Rietschel, E.Th., Kirikae, T., Feist, W., Loppnow, H., Zabel, P., Brade, L., Ulmer, A.J., Brade, H., Seydel, U, Zähringer, U., Schlaak, M., Flad, H.-D. and Schade, U. (1991) Molecular aspects of the chemistry and biology of endotoxin. In: Molecular Aspects of Inflammation (Sies, H., Flohé, L. and Zimmer, G., Eds.), pp. 207-231. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
112. [112] Kovach, N.L., Yee, E., Munford, R.S., Raetz, C.R.H. and Harlan, J.M. (1990) Lipid IVa inhibits synthesis and release of tumor necrosis factor induced by lipopolysaccharide in human whole blood ex vivo. J. Exp. Med. 172, 77-84.
113. [113] Homma, J.Y., Matsuura, M. and Kumazawa, Y. (1990) Structure-activity relationship of chemically synthesized nonreducing parts of lipid A analogs. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 256, 101-119.
114. [114] Saiki, I., Maeda, H., Murata, J., Takahashi, Y., Sekiguchi, S., Kiso, M., Hasegawa, A. and Azuma, I. (1990) Production of interleukin I from human monocytes stimulated by synthetic lipid A subunit analogues. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 12, 297-305.
115. [115] Galanos, C., Lehmann, V., Lüderitz, O., Rietschel, E.Th., Westphal, O., Brade, H., Brade, L., Freudenberg, M.A., Hansen-Hagge, T., Lüderitz, T., McKenzie, G., Schade, U., Strittmatter, W., Tanamoto, K., Zähringer, U., Imoto, M., Yoshimura, H., Yamamoto, M., Shimamoto, T., Kusumoto, S. and Shiba, T. (1984) Endotoxic properties of chemically synthesized lipid A part structures: Comparison of synthetic lipid A precursor and synthetic analogues with biosynthetic lipid A precursor and free lipid A. Eur. J. Biochem. 140, 221-227.
116. [116] Kirikae T, Schade, F.U., Zähringer. U., Kirikae, F., Brade, H., Kusumoto, S., Kusama, T. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1993) The significance of the hydrophilic backbone and the hydrophobic fatty acid regions of lipid A on macrophage binding and cytokine induction. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 8, 13-26.
117. [117] Golenbock, D.T., Hampton, R.Y., Qureshi, N., Takayama, K. and C.R.H. Raetz (1991) Lipid A-like molecules that antagonize the effects of endotoxins on human monocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 266, 19490-19498.
118. [118] Kirkland, T.N., Qureshi, N. and Takayama, K. (1991) Diphosphoryl lipid A derived from lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroidex inhibits activation of 70Z/3 cells by LPS. Infect. Immun. 59, 131-136.
119. [119] Freudenberg, M.A., Keppler, D. and Galanos, C. (1996) Requirement for lipopolysaccharide-responsive macrophages in galactosamine-induced sensitization to endotoxin. Infect. Immun. 51, 891-895.
120. [120] Rietschel, E.Th., Kirikae, T., Schade, F.U., Mamat, U., Schmidt, G., Loppnow, H, Ulmer, A.J., Zähringer, U., Seydel, U., Di Padova, F., Schreier, M. and Brade, H. (1994) Bacterial endotoxin: Molecular relationships of structure to activity and function. FASEB J. 8, 217-225.
121. [121] Rietschel, E.Th., Brade, H., Holst, O., Brade, L., Müller-Loennies, S., Mamat, U., Zähringer, U., Beckmann, F., Seydel, U., Brandenburg, K., Ulmer, A.J., Mattern, T., Heine, H., Schletter, J., Loppnow, H., Schönbeck, U., Flad, H.-D., Hauschildt, S., Schade, U.F., Di Padova, F., Kusumoto, S. and Schumann. R.R. (1996) Bacterial endotoxin: Chemical constitution, biological recognition, host response and immunological detoxification. Curr. Top, Microbiol. Immunol. 26, in press.
122. [122] Munford, R.S. and Hall, C.L. (1989) Purification of acyloxyacyl hydrolase, a leukocyte enzyme that removes secondary acyl chains from bacterial lipopolysaccharides. J. Biol. Chem. 264. 15613-15619.
123. [123] Luchi, M. and Munford, R.S. (1993) Binding, internalization and deacylation of bacterial lipopolysaccharide by human neutrophils. J. Immunol. 151, 959-969.
124. [124] Weiss, J., Elsbach, P., Olsson, I. and Odeberg, H. (1978) Purification and characterization of a potent bactericidal and membrane active protein from the granules of human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 253, 2664-2672.
125. [125] Marra, M.N., Wilde, C.G., Griffith, J.E., Snable, J.L. and Scott, R.W. (1990) Bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein has endotoxin-neutralizing activity. J. Immunol. 144, 662-666.
126. 2-terminal fragment cause killing of serum-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in whole blood and inhibit tumor necrosis factor release induced by the bacteria. J. Clin. Invest. 90, 1122-1130.
127. [127] Anderson, J., Melchers, F., Galanos, C. and Lüderitz, O. (1973) The mitogenic effect of LPS on bone marrow derived mouse lymphocytes. Lipid A as the mitogenic part of the molecule. J. Exp. Med. 137, 943-953.
128. [128] Milner, E.C.B., Rudbach, J.A. and VonEschen, K.B. (1983) Cellular responses to bacterial lipopolysaccharide: T cells recognize LPS determinants. Scand. J. Immunol. 18, 21-28.
129. [129] Vogel, S.N., Hilfiker, M.L. and Caulfield, M.J. (1983) Endotoxin-induced T lymphocyte proliferation. J. Immunol. 130, 1774-1779.
130. [130] Baker, P.J. (1993) Effect of endotoxin on suppressor T cell function. Immunobiol. 187, 372-381.
131. [131] Pober, J.S. and Cotran, R.S. (1990) The role of endothelial cells in inflammation. Transplantation 50, 537-544.
132. [132] Libby, P., Loppnow, H., Fleet, J.C., Palmer, H., Li, H.M., Warner, S.J.C., Salomon, R.N. and Clinton, S.K. (1991) Production of cytokines by vascular cells - An update and implications for atherogenesis. In: First Altschul Symposium - Atherosclerosis: Cellular and Molecular Interactions in the Artery Wall (Gotlieb, A.I., Langille, B.L. and Federoff, S., Eds.), pp. 161-169. Plenum Press. New York.
133. [133] Loppnow, H. and Libby, P. (1989) Adult human vascular endothelial cells express the IL6 gene differentially in response to LPS or IL-1. Cell. Immunol. 122, 493-503.
134. [134] Pugin, J., Schürer-Maly, C.-C., Letureq, D., Moriarty, A., Ulevitch, R.J. and Tobias, P.S. (1993) Lipopolysaccharide activation of human endothelial and epithelial cells is mediated by lipopolysaccharide-binding protein and soluble CD14. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 2744-2748.
135. [135] Camussi, G., Mariano, F., Biancone, L., DeMartino, A., Bussolati, B., Montrucchio, G. and Tobias, P.S. (1995) Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and CD14 modulate the synthesis of platelet-activating factor by human monocytes and mesangial and endothelial cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. J. Immunol. 155, 316-324.
136. [136] Wright, S.D. and Jong, M.T.C. (1986) Adhesion-promoting receptors on human macrophages recognize E. coli by binding to lipopolysaccharide. J. Exp. Med. 164, 1876-1888.
137. [137] Detmers, P.A. and Wright, S.D. (1988) Adhesion-promoting receptors on leukocytes. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 1, 10-15.
138. [138] Ingalls, R.R. and Golenbock, D.T. (1995) CD11c/CD18, a transmembrane signaling receptor for lipopolysaccharide. J. Exp. Med. 181, 1473-1479.
139. [139] Lei, M.G. and Morrison, D.C. (1988) Specific endotoxic lipopolysaccharide-binding proteins on murine splenocytes. I. Detection of lipopolysaccharide-binding sites on splenocytes and splenocyte subpopulations. J. Immunol. 141, 996-1005.
140. [140] Lei, M.G. and Morrison, D.C. (1988) Specific endotoxic lipopolysaccharide-binding proteins on murine splenocytes. II. Membrane localization and binding characteristics. J. Immunol. 141, 1006-1011.
141. [141] Lei, M.G., Stimpson, S.A. and Morrison, D.C. (1991) Specific endotoxic lipopolysaccharide-binding proteins on murine splenocytes. III. Binding specificity and characterizalion. J. Immunol. 147, 1925-1932.
142. [142] Kirikae T., Kirikae, F., Schade, U.F., Yoshida, M., Kondo, S., Hisatsune, K., Nishikawa, S.-I. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1991) Detection of lipopolysaccharide-binding proteins on membrane of murine lymphocyte and macrophage-like cell lines. FEMS Microbiol. Immunol. 76, 327-336.
143. [143] Wright, S.D., Ramos, R.A, Tobias, P.S., Ulevitch, R.J. and Mathison, J.C. (1990) CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein. Science 249, 1431-1433.
144. [144] Schutt, C., Ringel, B., Nausch, M., Bazil, V., Horejsi, V., Neels, P., Waizel, H., Jonas, L., Siegl, E., Friemel, H. and Plantikow, H. (1988) Human monocyte activation induced by an anti-CD14 monoclonal antibody. Immunol. Lett. 19, 321-328.
145. 125I-LPS. Infect. Immun. 60, 5145-5152.
146. [146] Weidemann, B., Brade, H., Rietschel, E.Th., Dziarski, R., Bazil, V., Kusumoto, S., Flad, H.-D. and Ulmer, A.J. (1994) Soluble peplidoglycan-induced monokine production can be blocked by anti-CD14 monoclonal antibodies and by lipid A partial strutures. Infect. Immun. 62, 4709-4715.
147. [147] Weidemann, B., Dziarski, R., Kusumoto, S., Rietschel, E.Th., Flad, H.-D. and Ulmer, A.J. Specific binding of soluble peptidoglycan to human monocytes can be blocked by anti-CD14, lipopolysaccharide, compound 406 and muramyldipeptide. Infect. Immun., submitted for publication.
148. [148] Tobias, P.S. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1993) Lipopolysaccharide binding protein and CD14 in LPS dependent macrophage activation. Immunobiol. 187, 227-232.
149. [149] Schuman, R.R. Leong, S.R., Flaggs, G.W., Gray, P.W., Wright, S.D., Mathison, J.C., Tobias, P.S. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1990) Structure and function of lipopolysaccharide binding protein. Science 249, 1429-1431.
150. [150] Wright, S.D. Ramos, R.A., Tatel, M. and Miller, D.S. (1992) Septin: A factor in plasma that opsonizes lipopolysaccharide-bearing particles for recognition by CD14 on phagocytes. J. Exp. Med. 176, 719-727.
151. [151] Haziot, A., Chen. S., Ferrero, E., Low, M.G., Silber, R. and Goyert, S.M. (1988) The monocyte differentiation antigen, CD14, is anchored to the cell membrane by a phosphatidylinositol linkage. J. Immunol. 141, 547-552.
152. [152] Lund-Johansen, F., Olweus, J., Symington, F.W., Arli, A., Thompson, J.S., Vilella, R., Skubitz, K. and Horejsi, V. (1993) Activation of human monocytes and granulocytes by monoclonal antibodies to glycosylphosphatidylinositolanchored antigens. Eur. J. Immunol. 23, 2782-2791.
153. [153] Lee, J.D., Kravchenko, V., Kirkland, T.N., Ran, J., Mackman, N., Moriarty, A., Letureq, D., Tobias, P.S. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1993) Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored or integral membrane forms of CD14 mediate identical cellular responses to endotoxin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 9930-9934.
154. [154] Golenbock, D.T. Hampton, R.Y., Raetz, C.R.H. and Wright, S.D. (1990) Human phagocytes have multiple lipid A-binding sites. Infect. Immun. 58, 4069-4075.
155. [155] Haeffner-Cavaillon, N. and Cavaillon, J.-M. (1987) Involvement of the LPS receptor in the induction of interleukin-1 in human monocytes stimulated with endotoxins. Ann. Inst. Pasteur Immunol. 138, 473-477.
156. [156] Tahri-Jouti, M.-A., Mondange, M., Le Dur, A., Auzanneau, F. I., Charon, D., Girard, R. and Chaby, R. (1990) Specific binding of lipopolysaccharides to mouse macro-phages. II. Involvement of distinct lipid A substructures. Mol. Immunol. 27, 763-770.
157. [157] Morrison, D.C. (1989) The case for specific lipopolysaccharide receptors expressed on mammalian cells. Microb. Pathog. 7, 389-398.
158. [158] Bazil, V., Horejsi, V., Baudys, M., Kristofova, H., Strominger, J.L., Kostka, W. and Hilgert, I. (1986) Biochemical characterization of a soluble form of the 53-kDa monocyte surface antigen. Eur. J. Immunol. 16, 1583-1589.
159. [159] Labeta, M.O., Durieux, J.-J., Fernandez, N., Herrmann, R. and Ferrara, P. (1993) Release from a human monocyte-like cell line of two different soluble forms of the lipopolysaccharide receptor, CD14. Eur. J. Immunol. 23, 2144-2151.
160. [160] Schletter, J., Brade, H., Brade, L., Krüger, C., Loppnow, H., Kusumoto, S., Rietschel, E.Th., Flad, H.-D. and Ulmer, A.J. (1995) Binding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to an 80 kD membrane protein of human cells is mediated by soluble CD14 and LPS-binding protein. Infect. Immun. 63, 2576-2580.
161. [161] Loppnow, H., Brade, H., Duerrbaum, I., Dinarello, C.A., Kusumoto, S., Rietschel, E.Th. and Flad, H.-D. (1989) IL-1 induction capacity of defined lipopolysaccharides and partial structures. J. Immunol. 142, 3229-3238
162. [162] Feist, W., Ulmer, A.J., Wang, M.-H., Musehold, J., Schlüter, C., Gerdes, J., Herzbeck, H., Brade, H., Kusumoto, S., Diamantstein, T., Rietschel, E.Th. and Flad, H.-D. (1992) Modulation of lipopolysaccharide-induced production of tumor necrosis factor, interleukin 1 and interleukin 6 by synthetic precursor Ia of lipid A. FEMS Microbiol. Immunol. 89, 73-90.
163. [163] Wang, M.-H., Flad, H.-D., Feist, W., Musehold, J., Kusumoto, S., Brade, H., Gerdes, J., Rietschel, E.Th. and Ulmer, A.J. (1992) Inhibition of endotoxin or lipid A-induced tumor necrosis factor production by synthetic lipid A partial structures in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Lymphokine Cytokine Res. 11, 23-31.
164. [164] Wang, M.-H., Feist, W., Herzbeck, H., Brade, H., Kusomoto, S., Rietschel, E.Th., Flad, H.-D. and Ulmer, A.J. (1990) Suppressive effect of lipid A partial structures on lipopolysaccharide or lipid A-induced release of interleukin 1 by human monocytes. FEMS Microbiol. Immunol. 64, 179-186.
165. [165] Kitchens, R.L., Ulevitch, R.J. and Munford, R.S. (1992) Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) partial structures inhibit responses to LPS in a human macrophage cell line without inhibiting LPS uptake by a CD14-mediated pathway. J. Exp. Med. 176, 485-494.
166. [166] Heine, H., Ulmer, A.J., Flad, H.-D. and Hauschildt, S. (1995) LPS-induced change of phosphorylation of two cytosolic proteins in human monocytes is prevented by inhibitors of ADP-ribosylation, J. Immunol. 155, 4899-4908.
167. [167] Takayama, K., Quereshi, N., Beutler, B. and Kirkland, T.N. (1989) Diphosphoryl lipid A from Rhodopseudomonas sphaemides ATCC 17023 blocks induction of cachectin in macrophages by lipopolysaccharide. Infect. Immun. 57, 1336-1338.
168. [168] Loppnow, H., Libby, P., Freudenberg, M., Kraus, J.H., Weckesser, J. and Mayer, H. (1990) Cytokine induction by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) corresponds to the lethal toxicity and is inhibited by nontoxic Rhodobacter capsulatus LPS. Infect. Immun. 58, 3743-3750.
169. [169] Christ, W.J., Asano, O., Robidoux, A.L.C., Perez, M., Wang, Y., Dubuc, G.R., Gavin, W.E., Hawkins, L.D., McGuinness, P.D., Mullarkey, M.A., Lewis, M.D., Kishi, Y., Kawata, T., Bristol, J.R., Rose, J.R., Rossignol, D.P., Kobayashi, S., Hishinuma, I., Kimura, A., Asakawa, N., Katayama, K. and Yamatsu, I, (1995) E5531, a pure endotoxin antagonist of high potency. Science 268, 80-83
170. [170] Heine, H., Brade, H., Kusumoto, S., Kusama, T., Rietschel, E.Th., Flad, H.-D. and Ulmer, A.J. (1994) Inhibition of LPS-binding on human monocytes by phosphono-oxyethyl analogs of lipid A. J. Endotoxin Res. 1, 14-20.
171. [171] Lauener, R.P., Geha, G.S. and Vercelli, D. (1990) Engagement of the monocyte surface antigen CD14 induces lymv phocytic function-associated antigen-1/intercellular adhesion molecule 1-dependent homotypic adhesion. J. Immunol. 145, 1390-1398.
172. [172] Pugin, J., Heumann, D., Tomasz, A., Kravchenko, V., Akamatzu, Y., Nishijima, M., Glauser, M., Tobias, P. and Ulevitch, R. (1994) CD14 is a pattern recognition receptor. Immunity 1, 509-516.
173. [173] Heumann, D., Barras, C., Severin, A., Glauser, M.P. and Tomasz, A. (1994) Gram-positive cell walls stimulate synthesis of tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 by human monocytes. Infect. Immun. 62, 2715-2721.
174. [174] Marra, M.N., Wilde, C.G., Collins, M.S., Snable, J.L., Thornton, M.B. and Scott, R.W. (1992) The role of bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein as a natural inhibitor of bacterial endotoxin. J. Immunol. 148, 532-537.
175. [175] Mannion, B.A., Kalatzs, E.S., Weiss, J. and Elsbach, P. (1989) Preferential binding of the neutrophil granule-derived bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein to target bacteria. J. Immunol. 142, 2807-2812.
176. [176] Weiss, J., Muello, K., Victor, M. and Elsbach, P. (1984) The role of lipopolysaccharides in the action of the bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein to target bacteria. J. Immunol. 132, 3109-3115.
177. [177] Tobias, P.S., Mathison, J.C. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1988) A family of lipopolysaccharide binding proteins involved in responses to Gram-negative sepsis. J. Biol. Chem. 263, 13479-13481.
178. [178] Tobias, P.S., Soldau, K. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1989) Identification of a lipid A binding site in the acute phase reactant lipopolysaccharide binding protein. J. Biol. Chem. 264, 10867-10871.
179. [179] Gazzano-Santoro, H., Parent, J.B., Grinna, L., Horwitz, A., Parsons, T., Theofan, G., Elsbach, P., Weiss, J. and Conlon, P.J. (1992) High-affinity binding of the bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein and a recombinant amino-terminal fragment to the lipid A region of lipopolysaccharide. Infect. Immun. 60, 4754-4761.
180. 23. Infect. Immun. 63, 2201-2205.
181. [181] Mathison, J.C., Tobias, P.S., Wolfson, E. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1992) Plasma lipo-polysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein. A key component in macrophage recognition of Gram-negative LPS. J. Immunol. 149, 200-206.
182. [182] Heumann, D., Gallay, P., Betz-Corradin, S., Barras, C., Baumgartner, J.D. and Glauser, M.P. (1993) Competition between bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein for lipopolysaccharide binding to monocytes. J. Infect. Dis. 167, 1351-1357.
183. [183] Dentener, M.A., von Asmuth, E.J.U., Francot, G.J.M., Marra, M.N. and Buurman, W.A. (1993) Antagonistic effects of lipopolysaccharide binding protein and bactericidal/ permeability-increasing protein on lipopolysaccharide-induced cytokine release by mononuclear phagocytes. J. Immunol. 151, 4258-4265.
184. [184] Jin, H., Yang, R., Marsters, S., Ashkenazi, A., Bunting, S., Marra, M.N., Scott, R.W. and Baker, J.B. (1995) Protection against endotoxic shock by bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein in rats. J. Clin. Invest. 95, 1947-1952.
185. [185] Fisher, C.J., Marra, M.N., Palardy, J.E., Marchbanks, C.R., Scott, R.W. and Opal, S.M. (1994) Human neutrophil bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein reduces mortality rate from endotoxin challenge: a placebo-controlled study. Crit. Care Med. 22, 553-558.
186. [186] Schutt, C., Schilling, T., Grunwald, U., Schönfeld, W. and Krüger, C. (1992) Endotoxin-neutralizing capacity of soluble CD14. Res. Immunol. 143. 71-78.
187. [187] Haziot, A., Rong, G.W., Lin, X.-Y., Silver, J. and Goyert, S.M. (1994) Recombinant soluble CD14 prevents mortality in mice treated with endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide). J. Immunol. 154, 6529-6532.
188. [188] Di Padova, F.E., Brade, H., Barclay, R., Poxton, I.R., Liehl, E., Schuetze, E., Kocher, H.P., Ramsay, G., Schreier, M.H., McClelland, D.B.L. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1993) A broadly cross-protective monoclonal antibody binding to Escherichia coli and Salmonella lipopolysaccharides. Infect. Immun. 61, 3863-3872.
189. [189] Di Padova, F.E., Mikol, V., Barclay, G.R., Poxton, I.R., Brade, H. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1994) Anti-lipopolysaccharide core antibodies. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 388, 85-94.
190. [190] Di Padova, F.E., Gram, H., Barclay, R., Poxton, I., Liehl, E. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1995) Monoclonal antibodies to endotoxin core as a new approach in endotoxemia therapy. In: Novel Therapeutic Strategies in the Treatment of Sepsis (Morrison, D.C. and Ryan, J.L., Eds.), pp. 13-31. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York.
191. [191] Rietschel, E.Th. and Galanos, C. (1977) Lipid A antiserum-mediated protection against lipopolysaccharide and lipid A-induced fever and skin necrosis. Infect. Immun. 15, 34-49.
192. [192] Galanos, C., Freudenberg, M.A., Jay, F., Nerkar, D., Veleva, K., Brade, H. and Strittmatter, W. (1984) Immunogenic properties of lipid A. Rev. Infect. Dis. 6, 546-552.
193. [193] Teng, N.N.H., Kaplan, H.S., Herbert, J.M., Moore, C., Douglas, H., Wunderlich, A. and Braude, A. (1985) Protection against Gram-negative bacteremia and endotoxemia with human monoclonal IgM antibodies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82, 1790-1794.
194. [194] Young, L.S., Gascon, R., Alam, S. and Bermudez, L.E.M. (1989) Monoclonal antibodies for treatment of Gram-negative infections. Rev. Infect. Dis. 11, 1564-1571.
195. [195] Fujihara, Y., Lei, M.-G. and Morrison, D.C. (1993) Characterization of specific binding of a human immunoglobulin M monoclonal antibody to lipopolysaccharide and its lipid A domain. Infect. Immun. 61, 910-918.
196. [196] Baumgartner, J.-D. and Glauser, M.-P. (1993) Immunotherapy of endotoxemia and septicemia. Immunobiol. 187, 464-477.
197. [197] Wenzel R., Bone, R., Fein, A., Quenzero, R., Schentag, J., Gorelick, K.J., Wedel, N.I. and Perl, T. (1991) Results of a second double-blind, randomized, controlled trial of antiendotoxin antibody E5 in Gram-negative sepsis. Interscience Conf. on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Am. Soc. Microbiol., p. 294, abstract.
198. [198] Bhat, N.M., Bieber, M.M., Chapman, C.J., Stevenson, F.K. and Teng, N.N.H. (1993) Human antilipid A monoclonal antibodies bind to human B cells and the i antigen on cord red blood cells. J. Immunol. 151, 5011-5021.
199. [199] Greisman, S.E. and Woodward, W.E. (1965) Mechanisms of endotoxin tolerance. III. The refractory state during continuous intravenous infusions of endotoxin. J. Exp. Med. 121, 911-933.
200. [200] Greer, G.G. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1978) Lipid A-induced tolerance and hyperreactivity to hypothermia in mice. Infect. Immun. 19, 357-368.
201. [201] Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W.L. (1995) Molecular mechanism in tolerance to lipopolysaccharide. J. Inflamm. 45, 13-26.
202. [202] Freudenberg, M.A. and Galanos, C. (1988) Induction of tolerance to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-D-galactosamine lethality by pretreatment with LPS is mediated by macrophages. Infect. Immun. 56, 1352-1357.
203. [203] Mathison, J.C., Virca, G.D., Wolfson, E., Tobias, P.S., Glaser, K. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1990) Adaptation to bacterial lipopolysaccharide controls lipopolysaccharide-induced tumor necrosis factor production in rabbit macrophages. J. Clin. Invest. 85, 1108-1118.
204. [204] Takayama, K., Qureshi, N., Beutler, B. and Kirkland, T.N. (1989) Diphosphoryl lipid A from Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides ATCC 17023 blocks induction of cachectin in macrophages by lipopolysaccharide. Infect. Immun. 57, 1336-1338.
205. [205] Matic, M. and Simon, S.R. (1991) Tumor necrosis factor release from lipopolysaccharide-stimulated human monocytes: Lipopolysaccharide tolerance in vitro. Cytokine 3, 576-583.
206. [206] Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W.L., Blumenstein, M., Käfferlein, E., Kieper, D., Petersmann, I., Endres, S., Flegel, W.A., Northoff, H., Riethmüller, G. and Haas, J.G. (1992) In vitro desensitization to lipopolysaccharide suppresses tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 gene expression in a similar fashion. Immunology 75, 264-268.
207. [207] Haas, J.G., Bäuerle, P.A., Riethmüller, G. and Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W.L. (1990) Molecular mechanisms in down-regulation of tumor necrosis factor expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87, 9563-9567.
208. [208] Fraker, D.L. Stovroff, M.C., Merino, M.J. and Norton, J.A. (1988) Tolerance to tumor necrosis factor in rats and the relationship to endotoxin tolerance and toxicity. J. Exp. Med. 168, 95-105.
209. [209] Wallach, D., Holtmann, H., Engelmann, H. and Nophas, Y. (1988) Sensitization and desensitization to lethal effects of tumor necrosis factor and IL-1. J. Immunol. 140, 2994-2999.
210. 51C-labeled lipid id A before and after the induction of endotoxin tolerance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81, 3491-3495.
211. [211] Fahmi, H. and Chaby, R. (1993) Desensitization of macrophages to endotoxin effects is not correlated with a down-regulation of lipopolysaccharide-binding sites. Cell. Immunol. 150, 219-229.
212. [212] Labeta, M.O., Durieux, J.-J., Spagnoli, G., Fernandez, N., Wijdenes, J. and Herrmann, R. (1993) CD14 and tolerance to lipopolysaccharide: Biochemical and functional analysis. Immunol. 80, 415-423.
213. [213] Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W.L., Wedel, A., Schraut, W., Strobel, M., Wendelgass, P., Sternsdorf, T., Bäuerle, P.A., Haas, J.G. and Riethmüller, G. (1994) Tolerance to lipopolysaccharide involves mobilization of nuclear factor kappa B with predominance of p50 homodimers. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 17001-17004.
214. [214] Takasuka, N., Matsuura, K., Yamamoto, S. and Akagawa, K.S. (1995) Suppression of TNF-(mRNA expression in LPS-primed macrophages occurs at the level of nuclear factor-kappa B activation, but not at the level of protein kinase C or CD14 expression. J. Immunol. 154, 4803-4812.
215. [215] Mathison, J., Wolfson, E., Steinmann, S., Tobias, P. and Ulevitch, R. (1993) Lipo-polysaccharide (LPS) recognition in macrophages. J. Clin. Invest. 92, 2053-2059.
216. [216] Frankenberger, M., Pechumer, H. and Ziegler-Heitbrock, H.W.L. (1995) Interleukin-10 is upregulated in LPS tolerance. Circ. Shock 45, 56-63.
217. [217] Randow, F., Syrbe, C., Meisel, C., Krausch, D., Zuckermann, H., Platzer, C. and Volk, H.-D. (1995) Mechanism of endotoxin desensitization: Involvement of interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor β. J. Exp. Med. 181. 1887-1892.
218. [218] Henricson, B.E., Manthey, C.L., Perera, P.Y., Hamilton, T.A. and Vogel, S.N. (1993) Dissociation of lipopolysacharide (LPS)-inducible gene expression in murine macrophages pretreated with smooth LPS versus monophosphoryl lipid A. Infect. Immun. 61, 2325-2333.
219. [219] Greisman, S.E., Young, E.J. and Carozza, F.A.J. (1969) Mechanisms of endotoxin tolerance. V. Specificity of the early and the late phases of pyrogenic tolerance. J. Immunol. 103, 1223-1236.
220. [220] Beutler, B., Krochin, N., Milsark, I.W., Luedke, C. and Cerami, A. (1986) Control of cachectin (tumor necrosis factor) synthesis: Mechanisms of endotoxin resistance. Science 232, 977-979.
221. [221] Amano, Y., Lee, S.W. and Allison, A.G. (1992) Inhibition by glucocorticoids of the formation of interleukin-1, interleukin-1 β and interleukin 6: Mediation by decreases mRNA stability. Mol. Pharmacol. 43, 176-182.
222. [222] Barber, A.E., Coyle, S.M., Marano, M.A., Fisher, E., Calvano, S.E., Fong, Y., Moldawer, L.L. and Fowry, S.F. (1993) Glucocorticoid therapy alters hormonal and cytokine responses to endotoxin in man. J. Immimol. 150, 1999-2006.
223. [223] Bemelmans, M.H.A., Gouma, D.J. and Buurman, W.A. (1993) Influence of nephrectomy on tumor necrosis factor clearance in a murine model. J. Immunol. 150, 2007-2017.
224. [224] Neuner, P., Klosner, G., Pourmojib, M., Trautinger, F. and Knobler, R. (1994) Selective release of tumor necrosis factor binding protein II by malignant human epidermal cells reveals protection from tumor necrosis factor alpha-mediated cytotoxicity. Cancer Res. 54, 6001-6005.
225. [225] Henricson, B.E., Neta, R. and Vogel, S.N. (1991) An interleukin-1 receptor antagonist blocks lipopolysaccharide-induced colony-stimulating factor production and early endotoxin tolerance. Infect. Immun, 59, 1188-1191.
226. [226] Schade, F.U., Franke, C., Schlegel, J. and Rietschel, E.Th. (1995) Formation of a TNF synthesis inhibitor in endotoxin tolerance. In; Bacterial Endotoxins: Lipopolysaccharide from Genes to Therapy (Levin, J., Alving, C.R, Munford, R.S. and Redl, H., Eds.), pp. 513-522. Wiley-Liss Inc., New York.
227. [227] Mackensen, A., Galanos, C. and Engelhardt, R. (1991) Modulating activity of interferon-γ on endotoxin-induced cytokine production in cancer patients. Blood 78, 3254-3258.
228. [228] Mackensen, A., Galanos, C., Wehr, U. and Engelhardt, R. (1992) Endotoxin tolerance: Regulation of cytokine production and cellular changes in response to endotoxin application in cancer patients. Eur. Cytokinine Netw. 3, 571-579.
229. [229] Munoz, C., Carlet, J., Fitting, C., Bisset, B., Blériot, J.-P. and Cavaillon, J.-M. (1991) Dysregulation of in vitro cytokine production by monocytes during sepsis. J. Clin. Invest. Ref. 88, 1747-1754.