Review article: The diffusion of policy diffusion research in political science

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 673-701

  Graham, Erin R ^a   Shipan, Charles R ^b   Volden, Craig ^c  

^a DREXEL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84872801411     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: 14692112     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123412000415     Document Type: Review

References (232)

1. See, for example, Colin J. Bennett, 'What is Policy Convergence and What Causes It?' British Journal of Political Science, 21 (1991), 215-33;
2. Frances Stokes Berry and William D. Berry, 'State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis', American Political Science Review, 84 (1990), 395-415;
3. Andrew Karch, 'Emerging Issues and Future Directions in State Policy Diffusion Research', State Politics and Policy Quarterly, 7 (2007), 54-80;
4. Covandoga Meseguer and Fabrizio Gilardi, 'What is New in the Study of Policy Diffusion?' Review of International Political Economy, 16 (2009), 527-43;
5. Robert L. Savage, 'Diffusion Research Traditions and the Spread of Policy Innovations in a Federal System', Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 15 (1985), 1-27;
6. Beth A. Simmons, Frank Dobbin and Geoffrey Garrett, 'Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism', International Organization, 60 (2006), 781-810;
7. Rebecca Kolins Givan, Sarah A. Soule and Kenneth M. Roberts, eds, The Diffusion of Social Movements: Actors, Mechanisms, and Political Effects (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010);
8. Diane Stone, 'Learning Lessons and Transferring Policy across Time, Space and Disciplines', Politics, 19 (1999), 51-9.
9. In so doing, we naturally limit ourselves to setting aside major parts of diffusion scholarship, such as those arising in economics or sociology (see, for example, David Strang and Sarah A. Soule, 'Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills', Annual Review of Sociology, 24 (1989), 265-90). However, at various points below, we briefly note connections across fields that we see as providing fertile ground for future scholarship.
10. Due to the breadth of methodologies used to study policy diffusion, we also do not comment fully on the benefits and costs of each approach, instead merely noting some of the exciting new additions to the field in recent years, from event history analysis (Berry and Berry, 'State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations: An Event History Analysis')
11. to dyadic explorations (Craig Volden, 'States as Policy Laboratories: Emulating Success in the Children's Health Insurance Program', Journal of Political Science, 50 (2006), 294-312;
12. Fabrizio Gilardi and Katharina Füglister, 'Empirical Modeling of Policy Diffusion in Federal States: The Dyadic Approach', Swiss Political Science Review, 14 (2008): 413-50)
13. to interdependence studies (Robert J. Franzese Jr and Jude C. Hays, 'Strategic Interaction Among EU Governments in Active Labor Market Policy-Making', European Union Politics, 7 (2006), 167-89)
14. to network approaches (Xun Cao, 'Networks as Channels of Policy Diffusion: Explaining Worldwide Changes in Capital Taxation, 1998-2006', International Studies Quarterly, 54 (2010), 823-54). While these (largely quantitative) methods provide useful counterpoints to beneficial qualitative assessments of policy transfers, norms and the like, our goal is to encourage integration on substantive grounds rather than to adjudicate methodological disputes.
15. Helen V. Milner and Edward D. Mansfield, 'The New Wave of Regionalism', International Organization, 53 (1999), 589-627.
16. See, for example, David Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995);
17. Aseem Prakash and Matthew Potoski, 'Racing to the Bottom? Trade, Environmental Governance, and ISO 14001', American Journal of Political Science, 50 (2006), 350-64;
18. Aseem Prakash and Kelly L. Kollman, 'Biopolitics in the EU and the U.S.: A Race to the Bottom or Convergence to the Top?' International Studies Quarterly, 47 (2003), 617-41;
19. Ka Zeng and Josh Eastin, 'International Economic Integration and Environmental Protection: The Case of China', International Studies Quarterly, 51 (2007), 971-95.
20. Jack L. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States', American Political Science Review, 63 (1969), 880-99.
21. See, for instance, Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, 'International Norm Dynamics and Political Change', International Organization, 52 (1998), 887-917.
22. See, for example, Henry R. Glick and Scott P. Hays, 'Innovation and Reinvention in State Policymaking: Theory and the Evolution of Living Will Laws', Journal of Politics, 53 (1991), 835-50.
23. See, for example, Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States
24. David Collier and Richard E. Messick, 'Prerequisites Versus Diffusion: Testing Alternative Explanations of Social Security Adoption', American Political Science Review, 69 (1975), 1299-315;
25. Simmons, Dobbin and Garrett, 'Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism'.
26. Although diffusion is often thought to occur over time, with one government's decisions influencing the subsequent decisions of others, we adopt a broader definition that allows policy choices to be interdependent, simultaneous or anticipatory, all of which result in one government's policy choices being dependent on others (see, for example, Brady Baybeck, William D. Berry and David A. Siegel, 'A Strategic Theory of Policy Diffusion via Intergovernmental Competition', Journal of Politics, 73 (2011), 232-47;
27. Franzese and Hays, 'Strategic Interaction among EU Governments in Active Labor Market Policy-Making').
28. The list of publications we included in our analysis, along with relevant citation information, can be found at http://sitemaker.umich.edu/cshipan/ datasets. Because we collected the data throughout 2008 and 2009, the numerous works published between 2008 and the present are thus not included in the quantitative analysis. We do, however, discuss many of these studies in our qualitative assessment of these growing literatures.
29. Michael W. Giles and James C. Garand, 'Ranking Political Science Journals: Reputational and Citational Approaches', PS: Political Science & Politics, 40 (2007), 741-52.
30. See, for instance, Graeme Boushey, Policy Diffusion Dynamics in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010);
31. Andrew Karch, Democratic Laboratories: Policy Diffusion Among the American States (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007);
32. Kurt G. Weyland, Bounded Rationality and Policy Diffusion (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007).
33. Many political scientists classify the main fields of study in alternative ways, such as with the inclusion of the 'public policy' field. Because the study of policy diffusion is naturally linked to public policy, we do not add this as a separate field, especially given the difficulties that would be involved in drawing distinctions between public policy and comparative politics or between public policy and American politics for many of these articles. Along similar lines, we do not include 'political methodology' as a separate field for present purposes. Studies are categorized as 'other' if they could not be identified as belonging primarily to AP, CP or IR. Most of these articles are mainly theoretical, and while they have implications for studies in these subfields, they do not fall cleanly into one of our categories (see, for example, Robert Axelrod, 'The Dissemination of Culture: A Model with Local Convergence and Global Polarization', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 41 (1997), 203-26).
34. Bernie Grofman, Natalie Masuoka and Scott Feld, 'Replication Data for: The Political Science 400: A 20-Year Update', 2007, hdl:1902.1/10398 UNF:3:2tWRl6UVmdq2DwGz4Rvwnw55 Bernie Grofman [Distributor].
35. While network analyses can be used for a variety of purposes, our purpose here is mainly to demonstrate the degree of connectedness across subfields and the nature of the discussions taking place in each area of scholarship. Colour versions of Figures 2, 3 and 4 allow the patterns to be seen more easily; these are posted online at http://sitemaker.umich.edu/cshipan/datasets.
36. See, for instance, Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States
37. Virginia Gray, 'Innovation in the States: A Diffusion Study', American Political Science Review, 67 (1973), 1174-85.
38. See, for example, Craig Volden, 'The Politics of Competitive Federalism: A Race to the Bottom in Welfare Benefits?' American Journal of Political Science, 46 (2002), 352-63.
39. See, for example, David P. Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Learning from Abroad: The Role of Policy Transfer in Contemporary Policy-Making', Governance, 13 (2000), 5-24;
40. Claudio M. Radaelli, 'Policy Transfer in the European Union: Institutional Isomorphism as a Source of Legitimacy', Governance, 13 (2000), 25-43;
41. Diane Stone, 'Non-Governmental Policy Transfer: The Strategies of Independent Policy Institutes', Governance, 13 (2000), 45-70.
42. See, for instance, Harvey Starr, 'Democratic Dominoes: Diffusion Approaches to the Spread of Democracy in the International System', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 35 (1991), 356-81.
43. See, for instance, Bennett, 'What is Policy Convergence and What Causes It?
44. See, for example, Benjamin A. Most and Harvey Starr, 'Diffusion, Reinforcement, Geopolitics, and the Spread of War', American Political Science Review, 74 (1980), 932-46.
45. See, for example, Peter M. Haas, 'Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination', International Organization, 46 (1992), 1-35;
46. Jeffrey T. Checkel, 'Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe', International Studies Quarterly, 43 (1999), 83-114.
47. Helen V. Milner, 'Rationalizing Politics: The Emerging Synthesis of International, American, and Comparative Politics', International Organization, 52 (1998), 759-86.
48. Michael Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation', American Journal of Political Science, 41 (1997), 738-70.
49. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States'.
50. Collier and Messick, 'Prerequisites versus Diffusion'.
51. Starr, 'Democratic Dominoes'.
52. Haas, 'Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination'.
53. Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation'.
54. Collier and Messick, 'Prerequisites versus Diffusion'.
55. Beth A. Simmons and Zachary Elkins, 'The Globalization of Liberalization: Policy Diffusion in the International Political Economy', American Political Science Review, 98 (2004), 171-89;
56. Kurt G. Weyland, 'Theories of Policy Diffusion: Lessons from Latin American Pension Reform', World Politics, 57 (2005), 262-95;
57. Weyland, Bounded Rationality and Policy Diffusion.
58. David P. Dolowitz, 'British Employment Policy in the 1980s: Learning from the American Experience', Governance, 10 (1997), 23-42.
59. See, for example, Harvey Starr and Benjamin A. Most, 'The Substance and Study of Borders in International Relations Research', International Studies Quarterly, 20 (1976), 581-620;
60. Harvey Starr and Benjamin A. Most, 'A Return Journey: Richardson, ''Frontiers'' and Wars in the 1946-1965 Era', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 22 (1978), 441-67;
61. Harvey Starr and Benjamin A. Most, 'The Forms and Processes of War Diffusion: Research Update on Contagion in African Conflict', Comparative Political Studies, 18 (1985), 206-27;
62. Most and Starr, 'Diffusion, Reinforcement, Geopolitics, and the Spread of War
63. Benjamin A. Most and Harvey Starr, 'Theoretical and Logical Issues in the Study of International Diffusion', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 2 (1990), 391-412;
64. William W. Davis, George T. Duncan and Randolph M. Siverson, 'The Dynamics of Warfare: 1816-1965', American Journal of Political Science, 22 (1978), 772-92;
65. Randolph M. Siverson and Joel King, 'Attributes of National Alliance Membership and War Participation, 1815-1965', American Journal of Political Science, 24 (1980), 1-15;
66. Randolph M. Siverson and Harvey Starr, 'Opportunity, Willingness, and the Diffusion of War', American Political Science Review, 84 (1990), 47-67.
67. Amitav Acharya, 'How Ideas Spread: Whose Norms Matter? Norm Localization and Institutional Change in Asian Regionalism', International Organization, 58 (2004), 239-75;
68. Finnemore and Sikkink, 'International Norm Dynamics and Political Change
69. Ann Florini, 'The Evolution of International Norms', International Studies Quarterly, 40 (1996), 363-89;
70. Richard Price, 'Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines', International Organization, 52 (1998), 613-43.
71. Simmons, Dobbin and Garrett, 'Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism
72. Beth A. Simmons, Frank Dobbin and Geoffrey Garrett, eds, The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy (Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
73. All such actors are embedded in social networks, as has long been recognized in political science. That said, exciting developments in innovation diffusion across networks could better be incorporated into the policy diffusion literature from other fields, ranging from economics (Michael Suk-Young Chwe, 'Communication and Coordination in Social Networks', Review of Economic Studies, 67 (2000), 1-16;
74. H. Peyton Young, 'The Diffusion of Innovations in Social Networks', in Lawrence E. Blume and Steven N. Durlauf, eds, The Economy as an Evolving Complex System, III: Current Perspectives and Future Directions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 267-81)
75. to physics (Ingve Simonsen, 'Diffusion and Networks: A Powerful Combination!', Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 357 (2005), 317-30).
76. David P. Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who Learns What from Whom? A Review of the Policy Transfer Literature', Political Studies, 44 (1996), 343-57.
77. See, for example, Fabrizio Gilardi, 'Who Learns from What in Policy Diffusion Processes?' American Journal of Political Science, 54 (2010), 650-66.
78. See, for instance, Karen Mossberger, 'State-Federal Diffusion and Policy Learning: From Enterprise Zones to Empowerment Zones', Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 29 (1999), 31-50;
79. Lawrence J. Grossback, Sean Nicholson-Crotty, and David A. Peterson, 'Ideology and Learning in Policy Diffusion', American Politics Research, 67 (2004), 521-45;
80. Volden, 'States as Policy Laboratories'.
81. See, for instance, Volden, 'The Politics of Competitive Federalism
82. David Levi-Faur, 'The Politics of Liberalisation: Privatisation and Regulation-for-Competition in Europe's and Latin America's Telecoms and Electricity Industries', European Journal of Political Research, 42 (2004), 705-40.
83. See, for example, John G. Ikenberry and Charles A. Kupchan, 'Socialization and Hegemonic Power', International Organization, 44 (1990), 283-315;
84. Benjamin O. Fordham and Victor Asal, 'Billiard Balls or Snowflakes? Major Power Prestige and the International Diffusion of Institutions and Practices', International Studies Quarterly, 51 (2007), 31-52.
85. See, for example, Charles R. Shipan and Craig Volden, 'Bottom-up Federalism: The Diffusion of Antismoking Policies from U.S. Cities to States', American Journal of Political Science, 50 (2006), 825-43.
86. On the general point of less professional legislatures having lower capacity to create policy, see John D. Huber and Charles R. Shipan, Deliberate Discretion? The Institutional Foundation of Bureaucratic Autonomy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
87. See, for example, Volden, 'States as Policy Laboratories'.
88. Weyland, 'Theories of Policy Diffusion'.
89. Juliana Pacheco, 'The Social Contagion Model: Exploring the Role of Public Opinion on the Diffusion of Anti-Smoking Legislation across the American States', Journal of Politics, 74 (2012), 187-202.
90. Collier and Messick, 'Prerequisites versus Diffusion'.
91. See, for instance, Daniel W. Drezner, 'Globalization, Harmonization, and Competition: The Different Pathways to Policy Convergence', Journal of European Public Policy, 12 (2005), 841-59;
92. Fordham and Asal, 'Billiard Balls or Snowflakes?
93. Baybeck, Berry and Siegel, 'A Strategic Theory of Policy Diffusion via Intergovernmental Competition'.
94. Emanuel Adler, 'The Emergence of Cooperation: National Epistemic Communities and the International Evolution of the Idea of Nuclear Arms Control', International Organization, 46 (1992), 101-46.
95. See, for example, Susan Welch and Kay Thompson, 'The Impact of Federal Incentives on State Policy Innovation', American Journal of Political Science, 24 (1980), 715-29.
96. Drezner, 'Globalization, Harmonization, and Competition'.
97. See, for example, Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation
98. Shipan and Volden, 'Bottom-up Federalism'.
99. See, for instance, Keith Boeckelman, 'The Influence of States on Federal Policy Adoptions', Policy Studies Journal, 20 (1992), 365-75.
100. See, for instance, Radaelli, 'Policy Transfer in the European Union'.
101. See, for example, Theda Skocpol, Marjorie Abend-Wein, Christopher Howard and Susan Goodrich Lehmann, 'Women's Associations and the Enactment of Mothers' Pensions in the United States', American Political Science Review, 87 (1993), 686-701;
102. Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation
103. Steven J. Balla, 'Interstate Professional Associations and the Diffusion of Policy Innovations', American Politics Research, 29 (2001), 221-45.
104. Haas, 'Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination'.
105. For several examples, see Diane Stone, 'Transfer Agents and Global Networks in the ''Transnationalization'' of Policy', Journal of European Public Policy, 11 (2004), 545-66.
106. See, for instance, Dolowitz, 'British Employment Policy in the 1980s'.
107. See, for example, Clarisa Pérez-Armendáriz and David Crow, 'Do Migrants Remit Democracy? International Migration, Political Beliefs, and Behavior in Mexico', Comparative Political Studies, 43 (2010), 119-48.
108. See, for example, Sarah M. Brooks, 'Interdependent and Domestic Foundations of Policy Change: The Diffusion of Pension Privatization around the World', International Studies Quarterly, 49 (2005), 273-94;
109. Hugh Ward and Xun Cao, 'Domestic and International Influences on Green Taxation', Comparative Political Studies (forthcoming);
110. Katharina Füglister, 'Where Does Learning Take Place? The Role of Intergovernmental Cooperation in Policy Diffusion', European Journal of Political Research, 51 (2012), 316-49.
111. See, for instance, Collier and Messick, 'Prerequisites versus Diffusion
112. David Klingman, 'Temporal and Spatial Diffusion in the Comparative-Analysis of Social-Change', American Political Science Review, 74 (1980), 123-37.
113. See, for example, Berry and Berry, 'State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations'.
114. Everett Rogers, The Diffusion of Innovations, 5th edn (New York: The Free Press, 2003). An intriguing study, building upon Rogers's review of thousands of studies across dozens of disciplines, would be to systematically analyse his generalizations across these studies, to assess which may apply to policy diffusion, to document which have been supported or rejected in the policy diffusion literature, and to lay out a course of study for the field based on what generalizable findings remain to be explored.
115. See, for example, Stuart Hill and Donald Rothchild, 'The Contagion of Political Conflict in Africa and the World', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 30 (1986), 716-35;
116. Richard P. Y. Li and William R. Thompson, 'The ''Coup Contagion'' Hypothesis', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 14 (1975), 63-88.
117. See, for instance, Starr, 'Democratic Dominoes
118. Daniel Brinks and Michael Coppedge, 'Diffusion is No Illusion: Neighbor Emulation in the Third Wave of Democracy', Comparative Political Studies, 39 (2006), 463-89.
119. See, for example, Zachary Elkins, 'Diffusion and the Constitutionalization of Europe', Comparative Political Studies, 43 (2010), 969-99;
120. H. George Frederickson, Gary Alan Johnson and Curtis Wood, 'The Changing Structure of American Cities: A Study of the Diffusion of Innovation', Public Administration Review, 64 (2004), 320-30;
121. Fabrizio Gilardi, Delegation in the Regulatory State (Cheltenham, Glos.: Edward Elgar, 2008).
122. We do, however, note that the diffusion of institutions and governing structures, like the diffusion of societal norms (e.g., Martha Finnemore, 'International Organizations as Teachers of Norms: The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and Science Policy', International Organization, 47 (1993), 565-97;
123. Richard Price, 'Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets LandMines', International Organization, 52 (1998), 613-43), may be key precursors to the adoption and diffusion of important policies.
124. See, for instance, John Kingdon, Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, 1995).
125. But see Karch, Democratic Laboratories.
126. Berry and Berry, 'State Lottery Adoptions as Policy Innovations'.
127. Jacqui True and Michael Mintrom, 'Transnational Networks of Policy Diffusion: The Case of Gender Mainstreaming', International Studies Quarterly, 45 (2001), 27-57.
128. Prakash and Potoski, 'Racing to the Bottom?
129. Frederick J. Boehmke and Richard Witmer, 'Disentangling Diffusion: The Effects of Social Learning and Economic Competition on State Policy Innovation and Expansion', Political Research Quarterly, 57 (2004), 39-51.
130. See, for example, Glick and Hays, 'Innovation and Reinvention in State Policymaking'.
131. Scott P. Hays, 'Patterns of Reinvention: The Nature of Evolution During Policy Diffusion', Policy Studies Journal, 24 (1996), 551-66.
132. See, for instance, Volden, 'States as Policy Laboratories'.
133. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States
134. Gray, 'Innovation in the States'.
135. Todd Makse and Craig Volden, 'The Role of Policy Attributes in the Diffusion of Innovations', Journal of Politics, 73 (2011), 108-24;
136. Sean Nicholson-Crotty, 'The Politics of Diffusion: Public Policy in the American States', Journal of Politics, 71 (2009), 192-205.
137. Louis Dembitz Brandeis, 'Dissenting Opinion', New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann, 285 U.S. 262, 311 (1932).
138. Boehmke and Witmer, 'Disentangling Diffusion
139. William D. Berry and Brady Baybeck, 'Using Geographic Information Systems to Study Interstate Competition', American Political Science Review, 99 (2005), 505-19.
140. Volden, 'States as Policy Laboratories
141. Covadonga Meseguer, 'Rational Learning and Bounded Learning in the Diffusion of Policy Innovations', Rationality and Society, 18 (2006), 35-66;
142. Fabrizio Gilardi, Katharina Füglister and Stephane Luyet, 'Learning from Others: The Diffusion of Hospital Financing Reforms in OECD Countries', Comparative Political Studies, 42 (2009), 549-73.
143. Gilardi, 'Who Learns from What in Policy Diffusion Processes?
144. See, for example, Most and Starr, 'Diffusion, Reinforcement, Geopolitics, and the Spread of War'.
145. Franzese and Hays, 'Strategic Interaction among EU Governments in Active Labor Market Policy- Making'.
146. J. C. Sharman, 'Dysfunctional Policy Transfer in National Tax Blacklists', Governance, 23 (2010), 623-39;
147. Sarah A. Soule, 'The Diffusion of an Unsuccessful Innovation', Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 566 (1999), 120-31.
148. Christopher Z. Mooney, 'Modeling Regional Effects on State Policy Diffusion', Political Research Quarterly, 54 (2001), 103-24.
149. Charles M. Tiebout, 'A Pure Theory of Local Expenditures', Journal of Political Economy, 64 (1956), 416-24.
150. See, for instance, John Conybeare, 'Trade Wars: A Comparative Study of Anglo-Hanse, Franco- Italian, and Hawley-Smoot Conflicts', in K. Oye, ed., Cooperation under Anarchy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986).
151. Zachary Elkins, Andrew T. Guzman and Beth A. Simmons, 'Competing for Capital: The Diffusion of Bilateral Investment Treaties, 1960-2000', International Organization, 60 (2006), 811-46.
152. See, for example, Paul E. Peterson and Mark C. Rom, Welfare Magnets: A New Case for a National Standard (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1990);
153. Volden, 'The Politics of Competitive Federalism
154. Michael A. Bailey and Mark C. Rom, 'A Wider Race? Interstate Competition Across Health and Welfare Programs', Journal of Politics, 66 (2004), 326-47.
155. Baybeck, Berry, and Siegel, 'A Strategic Theory of Policy Diffusion via Intergovernmental Competition'.
156. See, for instance, Jack L. Walker, 'Comment: Problems in Research on the Diffusion of Policy Innovations', American Political Science Review, 67 (1973), 1186-91;
157. Welch and Thompson, 'The Impact of Federal Incentives on State Policy Innovation
158. Mahalley D. Allen, Carrie A. Pettus and Donald P. Haider-Markel, 'Making the National Local: Specifying the Conditions for National Government Influence on State Policymaking', State Politics and Policy Quarterly, 4 (2004), 318-44;
159. Andrew Karch, 'National Intervention and the Diffusion of Policy Innovations', American Politics Research, 34 (2006), 403-26;
160. Karch, Democratic Laboratories.
161. Thomas C. Schelling, The Strategy of Conflict (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960).
162. See, for example, Drezner, 'Globalization, Harmonization, and Competition'.
163. See, for example, David A. Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1985);
164. Gary Clyde Hufbauer, Jeffrey Schott and Kimberly Ann Elliott, Economic Sanctions Reconsidered (Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute, 1990).
165. Lisa L. Martin, 'Interests, Power, and Multilateralism', International Organization, 46 (1992), 765-92.
166. Jeffrey T. Checkel, 'International Institutions and Socialization in Europe: Introduction and Framework', International Organization, 59 (2005), 801-27, p. 804.
167. Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Book Group, 2004).
168. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States'.
169. Collier and Messick, 'Prerequisites versus Diffusion'.
170. See, for instance, Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
171. Haas, 'Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination
172. Adler, 'The Emergence of Cooperation: National Epistemic Communities and the International Evolution of the Idea of Nuclear Arms Control'.
173. Acharya, 'How Ideas Spread'.
174. See, for example, Dolowitz, 'British Employment Policy in the 1980s'.
175. See, for instance, Martha Finnemore, 'International Organizations as Teachers of Norms
176. Füglister, 'Where Does Learning Take Place?'.
177. Anne C. Case, James R. Hines, Jr., and Harvey S. Rosen, 'Budget Spillovers and Fiscal Policy Interdependence: Evidence from the States', Journal of Public Economics, 52 (1993), 285-307.
178. Grossback, Nicholson-Crotty, and Peterson, 'Ideology and Learning in Policy Diffusion'.
179. Volden, 'States as Policy Laboratories'.
180. Simmons and Elkins, 'The Globalization of Liberalization'.
181. Frances Stokes Berry, 'Sizing Up State Policy Innovation Research', Policy Studies Journal, 22 (1994), 442-56;
182. Craig Volden, Michael M. Ting and Daniel P. Carpenter, 'A Formal Model of Learning and Policy Diffusion', American Political Science Review, 102 (2008), 319-32.
183. Howard M. Leichter, 'The Patterns and Origins of Policy Diffusion: The Case of the Commonwealth', Comparative Politics, 1 (1983), 223-33;
184. Simmons, Dobbins and Garrett, eds, The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy.
185. Boehmke and Witmer, 'Disentangling Diffusion'.
186. Charles R. Shipan and Craig Volden, 'The Mechanisms of Policy Diffusion', American Journal of Political Science, 52 (2008), 840-57.
187. Berry and Baybeck, 'Using Geographic Information Systems to Study Interstate Competition'.
188. See, for example, Cao, 'Networks as Channels of Policy Diffusion'.
189. Hugh Ward and Peter John, Competitive Learning in Yardstick Competition: Testing Models of Policy Diffusion (unpublished paper: Department of Government, University of Essex, 2011);
190. Isin Guler, Mauro F. Guillén and John Muir Macpherson (in 'Global Competition, Institutions, and the Diffusion of Organizational Practices: The International Spread of ISO 9000 Quality Certificates', Administrative Science Quarterly, 47 (2002), 207-32)
191. discuss how learning and imitation can occur for competitive reasons to avoid the risk of a competitive disadvantage (see, e.g., Eric Abrahamson and Lori Rosenkopf, 'Institutional and Competitive Bandwagons: Using Mathematical Modeling as a Tool to Explore Innovation Diffusion', Academy of Management Review, 18 (1993), 487-517;
192. R. Pamela Haunschild and Anne S. Miner, 'Modes of Interorganizational Imitation: The Effects of Outcome Salience and Uncertainty', Administrative Science Quarterly, 42 (1997), 472-500.
193. See, for instance, Weyland, Bounded Rationality and Policy Diffusion.
194. See, for example, Finnemore and Sikkink, 'International Norm Dynamics and Political Change'.
195. See, for example, Weyland, Bounded Rationality and Policy Diffusion.
196. Such disparate conversations are by no means solely caused by subfield divides. For example, early works in the AP literature were in many ways talking past one another, with some focused on the spread of policies (see, for instance, Gray, 'Innovation in the States')
197. others interested in the innovativeness of states as judged by when they adopted such policies (see, for example, Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States').
198. Füglister, 'Where Does Learning Take Place?
199. R. Daniel Kelemen and Eric C. Sibbitt, 'The Globalization of American Law', International Organization, 58 (2004), 103-36.
200. Shipan and Volden, 'Bottom-up Federalism'.
201. Helen V. Milner, 'The Digital Divide: The Role of Political Institutions in Technology Diffusion', Comparative Political Studies, 39 (2006), 176-99.
202. Checkel, 'Norms, Institutions, and National Identity in Contemporary Europe'.
203. Eric Neumayer and Thomas Plümper, 'Conditional Spatial Policy Dependence: Theory and Model Specification', Comparative Political Studies, 45 (2012), 819-49.
204. Robert L. Crain, 'Fluoridation: Diffusion of an Innovation among Cities', Social Forces, 44 (1966), 467-76;
205. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States'.
206. See, for example, Balla, 'Interstate Professional Associations and the Diffusion of Policy Innovations
207. Mintrom, 'Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation
208. Skocpol, Abend-Wein, Howard and Lehmann, 'Women's Associations and the Enactment of Mothers' Pensions in the United States'.
209. Stone, 'Learning Lessons and Transferring Policy across Time, Space and Disciplines'.
210. Bailey and Rom, 'A Wider Race?
211. Prakash and Potoski, 'Racing to the Bottom?
212. Zeng and Eastin, 'International Economic Integration and Environmental Protection'.
213. Zeng and Eastin, 'International Economic Integration and Environmental Protection
214. Finnemore, 'International Organizations as Teachers of Norms'.
215. Drezner, 'Globalization, Harmonization, and Competition'.
216. The nature of the diffusing policies themselves also may influence how policy diffusion comes about. Whether policies are observable, whether they easily can be tried and abandoned, and their degree of complexity may affect not only their speed of adoption but also the reliance of policy makers on particular diffusion mechanisms (see, for example, Rogers, The Diffusion of Innovations;
217. Boushey, Policy Diffusion Dynamics in America;
218. Makse and Volden, 'The Role of Policy Attributes in the Diffusion of Innovations'.
219. The level of controversy surrounding new policy ideas influences diffusion (see, for instance, Scott P. Hays, 'Patterns of Reinvention: The Nature of Evolution during Policy Diffusion', Policy Studies Journal, 24 (1996), 551-66), perhaps leading to higher standards for judging successes elsewhere or to a stronger resistance to coercion or socialization.
220. Therefore, although scholars have shown policy diffusion to be relevant across numerous areas of policy adoption (see, for example, Christopher Z. Mooney and Mei-Hsien Lee, 'Legislative Morality in the American States: The Case of Pre-Roe Abortion Regulation Reform', American Journal of Political Science, 39 (1995), 599-627), the nature of that diffusion may depend fundamentally on the type of policy that is spreading.
221. Walker, 'The Diffusion of Innovations among the American States'.
222. Bradley Canon and Lawrence Baum, 'Patterns of Adoption of Tort Law Innovations: An Application of Diffusion Theory to Judicial Doctrines', American Political Science Review, 75 (1981), 975-87.
223. See, for example, Gray, 'Innovation in the States'.
224. However, see Boushey, Policy Diffusion Dynamics in America.
225. Welch and Thompson, 'The Impact of Federal Incentives on State Policy Innovation
226. Mooney, 'Modeling Regional Effects on State Policy Diffusion
227. Gilardi, Füglister and Luyet, 'Learning from Others'.
228. Michael Mintrom and Sandra Vergari, 'Policy Networks and Innovation Diffusion: The Case of State Education Reforms', Journal of Politics, 60 (1998), 126-48.
229. See, for instance, Dietmar Braun and Fabrizio Gilardi, 'Taking ''Galton's Problem'' Seriously: Towards a Theory of Policy Diffusion', Journal of Theoretical Politics, 18 (2006), 298-322.
230. Volden, Ting and Carpenter, 'A Formal Model of Learning and Policy Diffusion'.
231. We are also hopeful that the current trend of increasing coauthorships and collaborations will help scholars overcome interdisciplinary and subfield barriers, in ways already becoming apparent between sociology and political science (see, for instance, Simmons, Dobbin and Garrett, 'Introduction: The International Diffusion of Liberalism', Simmons, Dobbin and Garrett, eds, The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy;
232. Givan, Soule and Roberts, eds, The Diffusion of Social Movements).