Nutrition assessment and management in advanced liver disease

Nutrition in Clinical Practice

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 15-29

  Johnson, Tammy M ^a   Overgard, Erin B ^a   Cohen, Ashley E ^a   Dibaise, John K ^a  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

end stage liver disease; liver diseases; malnutrition; nutrition assessment; nutritional requirements; nutritional support

Indexed keywords

CARBOHYDRATE; FAT; TRACE ELEMENT; VITAMIN;

ANTHROPOMETRY; ARTICLE; ASCITES; BODY COMPOSITION; CALORIC INTAKE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY; HEPATORENAL SYNDROME; HUMAN; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIQUID; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER DISEASE; MALNUTRITION; MORBIDITY; NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; OBESITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROGNOSIS; SURVIVAL;

BODY COMPOSITION; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIETARY FATS; DIETARY PROTEINS; ENERGY INTAKE; HUMANS; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIVER; LIVER DISEASES; MALNUTRITION; MICRONUTRIENTS; NUTRITION ASSESSMENT; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; OBESITY; PROGNOSIS;

EID: 84872402112     PISSN: 08845336     EISSN: 19412452     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0884533612469027     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. Cheung K, Lee SS, Raman M.. Prevalence and mechanisms of malnutrition in patients with advanced liver disease, and nutrition management strategies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012 ; 10 (2). 117-125
2. Kalaitzakis E, Simren M, Olsson R, et al. Gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with liver cirrhosis: associations with nutritional status and health-related quality of life. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2006 ; 41 (12). 1464-1472
3. Gunsar F, Raimondo ML, Jones S, et al. Nutritional status and prognosis in cirrhotic patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2006 ; 24 (4). 563-572
4. Campillo B, Richardet JP, Bories PN.. Enteral nutrition in severely malnourished and anorectic cirrhotic patients in clinical practice. Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 2005 ; 29: 645-651
5. Detsky AS, Smalley PS, Chang J.. The rational clinical examination: is this patient malnourished?. JAMA. 1994 ; 271 (1). 54-58
6. Pikul J, Sharpe MD, Lowndes R, Ghent CN.. Degree of preoperative malnutrition is predictive of postoperative morbidity and mortality in liver transplant recipients. Transplantation. 1994 ; 57 (3). 469-472
7. Vezali E, Aghemo A, Colombo M.. A review of the treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection in cirrhosis. Clin Ther. 2010 ; 32 (13). 2117-2138
8. FranciscusA.What is cirrhosis?2011. www.hcvadvocate.org
9. Alberino F, Gatta A, Amodio P, et al. Nutrition and survival in patients with liver cirrhosis. Nutrition. 2001 ; 17 (6). 445-450
10. Mueller CM. The American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition (A.S.P.E.N.) Adult Nutrition Support Core Curriculum. 2 nd ed.Silver Spring, MD: American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition; 2012. Silver Spring, MD: American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition ; 2012 :
11. Matos C, Porayko MK, Francisco-Ziller N, DiCecco S.. Nutrition and chronic liver disease. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2002 ; 35 (5). 391-397
12. Aqel BA, Scolapio JS, Dickson RC, Burton DD, Bouras EP.. Contribution of ascites to impaired gastric function and nutritional intake in patients with cirrhosis and ascites. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005 ; 3 (11). 1095-1100
13. Cabre E, Gassull MA.. Nutrition in liver disease. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2005 ; 8 (5). 545-551
14. Scolapio JS, Ukleja A, McGreevy K, Burnett OL, O'Brien PC.. Nutritional problems in end-stage liver disease: contribution of impaired gastric emptying and ascites. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2002 ; 34 (1). 89-93
15. Kalaitzakis E, Bosaeus I, Ohman L, Bjornsson E.. Altered postprandial glucose, insulin, leptin, and ghrelin in liver cirrhosis: correlations with energy intake and resting energy expenditure. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 ; 85 (3). 808-815
16. Council on Practice (COP) Quality Management Committee. J Am Diet Assoc. 1994 ; 94 (8). 838-839
17. Detsky AS, McLaughlin JR, Baker JP, et al. What is subjective global assessment of nutritional status? 1987. Classical article. Nutr Hosp. 2008 ; 23 (4). 400-407
18. Alvares-da-Silva MR, Reverbel da, Silveira T.. Comparison between handgrip strength, subjective global assessment, and prognostic nutritional index in assessing malnutrition and predicting clinical outcome in cirrhotic outpatients. Nutrition. 2005 ; 21 (2). 113-117
19. Schatzkin A, Kipnis V, Carroll RJ, et al. A comparison of a food frequency questionnaire with a 24-hour recall for use in an epidemiological cohort study: results from the biomarker-based Observing Protein and Energy Nutrition (OPEN) study. Int J Epidemiol. 2003 ; 32 (6). 1054-1062
20. Brunner E, Stallone D, Juneja M, Bingham S, Marmot M.. Dietary assessment in Whitehall II: comparison of 7 d diet diary and food-frequency questionnaire and validity against biomarkers. Br J Nutr. 2001 ; 86 (3). 405-414
21. Krall EA, Dwyer JT.. Validity of a food frequency questionnaire and a food diary in a short-term recall situation. J Am Diet Assoc. 1987 ; 87 (10). 1374-1377
22. Figueiredo FA, De Mello Perez R, Kondo M.. Effect of liver cirrhosis on body composition: evidence of significant depletion even in mild disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005 ; 20 (2). 209-216
23. Peng S, Plank LD, McCall JL, Gillanders LK, McIlroy K, Gane EJ.. Body composition, muscle function, and energy expenditure in patients with liver cirrhosis: a comprehensive study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 ; 85 (5). 1257-1266
24. Carvalho L, Parise ER.. Evaluation of nutritional status of nonhospitalized patients with liver cirrhosis. Arq Gastroenterol. 2006 ; 43 (4). 269-274
25. Pugh RN, Murray-Lyon IM, Dawson JL, Pietroni MC, Williams R.. Transection of the oesophagus for bleeding oesophageal varices. Br J Surg. 1973 ; 60 (8). 646-649
26. Jensen GL, Hsiao PY, Wheeler D.. Adult nutrition assessment tutorial. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2012 ; 36 (3). 267-274
27. Fernandes SA, Bassani L, Nunes FF, Aydos ME, Alves AV, Marroni CA.. Nutritional assessment in patients with cirrhosis. Arq Gastroenterol. 2012 ; 49 (1). 19-27
28. Kallwitz ER.. Metabolic syndrome after liver transplantation: preventable illness or common consequence?. World J Gastroenterol. 2012 ; 18 (28). 3627-3634
29. Hsieh MH, Lin WY, Chien HH, et al. Waist circumference, body mass index, serum uric acid, blood sugar, and triglyceride levels are important risk factors for abnormal liver function tests in the Taiwanese population. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2012 ; 28 (9). 470-476
30. Fiore P, Merli M, Andreoli A, et al. A comparison of skinfold anthropometry and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for the evaluation of body fat in cirrhotic patients. Clin Nutr. 1999 ; 18 (6). 349-351
31. United Network for Organ Sharing. Donation and transplant data. 2012. http://www.unos.org
32. Pirlich M, Schutz T, Ockenga J, et al. Improved assessment of body cell mass by segmental bioimpedance analysis in malnourished subjects and acromegaly. Clin Nutr. 2003 ; 22 (2). 167-174
33. Pirlich M, Schutz T, Spachos T, et al. Bioelectrical impedance analysis is a useful bedside technique to assess malnutrition in cirrhotic patients with and without ascites. Hepatology. 2000 ; 32 (6). 1208-1215
34. Biaggi RR, Vollman MW, Nies MA, et al. Comparison of air-displacement plethysmography with hydrostatic weighing and bioelectrical impedance analysis for the assessment of body composition in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 ; 69 (5). 898-903
35. Dempster P, Aitkens S.. A new air displacement method for the determination of human body composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995 ; 27 (12). 1692-1697
36. Fuhrman P, Charney P, Mueller CM.. Hepatic proteins and nutrition assessment. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004 ; 104 (8). 1258-1264
37. Seltzer MH, Bastidas JA, Cooper DM, Engler P, Slocum B, Fletcher HS.. Instant nutritional assessment. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1979 ; 3 (3). 157-159
38. Boosalis MG, Ott L, Levine AS, et al. Relationship of visceral proteins to nutritional status in chronic and acute stress. Crit Care Med. 1989 ; 17 (8). 741-747
39. McClave SA, Mitoraj TE, Thielmeier KA, Greenburg RA.. Differentiating subtypes (hypoalbuminemic vs marasmic) of protein-calorie malnutrition: incidence and clinical significance in a university hospital setting. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1992 ; 16 (4). 337-342
40. Anderson CF, Wochos DN.. The utility of serum albumin values in the nutritional assessment of hospitalized patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 1982 ; 57 (3). 181-184
41. Ballmer PE, McNurlan MA, Hulter HN, Anderson SE, Garlick PJ, Krapf R.. Chronic metabolic acidosis decreases albumin synthesis and induces negative nitrogen balance in humans. J Clin Invest. 1995 ; 95 (1). 39-45
42. Sreedhara R, Avram MM, Blanco M, Batish R, Mittman N.. Prealbumin is the best nutritional predictor of survival in hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 1996 ; 28 (6). 937-942
43. Weinsier RL, Hunker EM, Krumdieck CL, Butterworth CE. Hospital malnutrition: a prospective evaluation of general medical patients during the course of hospitalization. Am J Clin Nutr. 1979 ; 32 (2). 418-426
44. Banh L.. Serum proteins as markers of nutrition: what are we treating. Pract Gastroenterol. 2006 ; 43: 46-64
45. Yasmin MY, Aziz B, Nazim M, Madhavan RK.. Prealbumin rather than albumin is a more sensitive indicator of acute liver disease. Malays J Pathol. 1993 ; 15 (2). 147-150
46. Ferreira LG, Anastacio LR, Lima AS, Correia MI.. Assessment of nutritional status of patients waiting for liver transplantation. Clin Transplant. 2011 ; 25 (2). 248-254
47. Abbott-Johnson W, Kerlin P, Clague A, Johnson H, Cuneo R.. Relationships between blood levels of fat soluble vitamins and disease etiology and severity in adults awaiting liver transplantation. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011 ; 26 (9). 1402-1410
48. Morrison S.. Clinical nutrition physical examination. Support Line. 1997 ; 19 (2). 16-18
49. Jeejeebhoy KN.. Nutritional assessment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 1998 ; 27 (2). 347-369
50. Daily Recommended Intakes.2012. http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/dietary- guidance/dietary-reference-intakes
51. Cheung K, Lee SS, Raman M.. Prevalence and mechanisms of malnutrition in patients with advanced liver disease, and nutrition management strategies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012 ; 10 (2). 117-125
52. Abbott-Johnson W, Kerlin P, Clague A, Johnson H, Cuneo R.. Relationships between blood levels of fat soluble vitamins and disease etiology and severity in adults awaiting liver transplantation. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011 ; 26 (9). 1402-1410
53. Crawford BA, Labio ED, Strasser SI, McCaughan GW.. Vitamin D replacement for cirrhosis-related bone disease. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006 ; 3 (12). 689-699
54. Look MP, Reichel C, von Falkenhausen M, et al. Vitamin E status in patients with liver cirrhosis: normal or deficient?. Metabolism. 1999 ; 48 (1). 86-91
55. Harrison SA, Torgerson S, Hayashi P, Ward J, Schenker S.. Vitamin E and vitamin C treatment improves fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003 ; 98 (11). 2485-2490
56. Lavine JE.. Vitamin E treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in children: a pilot study. J Pediatr. 2000 ; 136 (6). 734-738
57. Sanyal AJ, Mofrad PS, Contos MJ, et al. A pilot study of vitamin E versus vitamin E and pioglitazone for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2004 ; 2 (12). 1107-1115
58. Harrison SA, Torgerson S, Hayashi P, Ward J, Schenker S.. Vitamin E and vitamin C treatment improves fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003 ; 98 (11). 2485-2490
59. Rahelic D, Kujundzic M, Romic Z, Brkic K, Petrovecki M.. Serum concentration of zinc, copper, manganese and magnesium in patients with liver cirrhosis. Coll Antropol. 2006 ; 30 (3). 523-528
60. Bianchi G.. Nutritional effects of oral zinc supplementation in cirrhosis. Nutr Res. 2000 ; 20 (8). 1079-1089
61. Lin CC. Selenium, iron, copper, and zinc levels and copper-to-zinc ratios in serum of patients at different stages of viral hepatic diseases. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2006 ; 109 (1). 15-24
62. Burk RF.. Selenium, an antioxidant nutrient. Nutr Clin Care. 2002 ; 5 (2). 75-79
63. Rayman MP.. Food-chain selenium and human health: emphasis on intake. Br J Nutr. 2008 ; 100 (2). 254-268
64. Guerrerio AL, Colvin RM, Schwartz AK, et al. Choline intake in a large cohort of patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012 ; 95 (4). 892-900
65. Chang WT, Ker CG, Hung HC, et al. Albumin and prealbumin may predict retinol status in patients with liver cirrhosis. Hepatogastroenterology. 2008 ; 55: 1681-1685
66. Pappa HM, Bern E, Kamin D, Grand RJ.. Vitamin D status in gastrointestinal and liver disease. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2008 ; 24 (2). 176-183
67. Arteh J, Narra S, Nair S.. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in chronic liver disease. Dig Dis Sci. 2010 ; 55 (9). 2624-2628
68. Rode A, Fourlanos S, Nicoll A.. Oral vitamin D replacement is effective in chronic liver disease. Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 2010 ; 34 (11). 618-620
69. Malham M, Jorgensen SP, Ott P, et al. Vitamin D deficiency in cirrhosis relates to liver dysfunction rather than aetiology. World J Gastroenterol. 2011 ; 17 (7). 922-925
70. Mullin GE.. Vitamin E for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Nutr Clin Pract. 2011 ; 26 (5). 636-637
71. Cankurtaran M, Kav T, Yavuz B, et al. Serum vitamin-E levels and its relation to clinical features in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with elevated ALT levels. Acta Gastroenterol Belg. 2006 ; 69 (1). 5-11
72. Hasegawa T, Yoneda M, Nakamura K, Makino I, Terano A.. Plasma transforming growth factor-beta1 level and efficacy of alpha-tocopherol in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a pilot study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2001 ; 15 (10). 1667-1672
73. Yakaryilmaz F, Guliter S, Savas B, et al. Effects of vitamin E treatment on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha expression and insulin resistance in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: results of a pilot study. Intern Med J. 2007 ; 37 (4). 229-235
74. Schattenberg JM, Schuppan D.. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: the therapeutic challenge of a global epidemic. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2011 ; 22 (6). 479-488
75. Vermeer C, Shearer MJ, Zittermann A, et al. Beyond deficiency: potential benefits of increased intakes of vitamin K for bone and vascular health. Eur J Nutr. 2004 ; 43 (6). 325-335
76. Kowdley KV, Emond MJ, Sadowski JA, Kaplan MM.. Plasma vitamin K1 level is decreased in primary biliary cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 1997 ; 92 (11). 2059-2061
77. Baker H, Leevy CB, DeAngelis B, Frank O, Baker ER.. Cobalamin (vitamin B12) and holotranscobalamin changes in plasma and liver tissue in alcoholics with liver disease. J Am Coll Nutr. 1998 ; 17 (3). 235-238
78. Swaminathan R.. Magnesium metabolism and its disorders. Clin Biochem Rev. 2003 ; 24 (2). 47-66
79. Thomson AD, Marshall EJ.. The natural history and pathophysiology of Wernicke's encephalopathy and Korsakoff's psychosis. Alcohol Alcohol. 2006 ; 41 (2). 151-158
80. Halifeoglu I, Gur B, Aydin S, Ozturk A.. Plasma trace elements, vitamin B12, folate, and homocysteine levels in cirrhotic patients compared to healthy controls. Biochemistry (Mosc). 2004 ; 69 (6). 693-696
81. Somi M, Rahimi A, Moshrefi B, Razaeifar P, Maghami J.. Nutritional status and blood trace elements in cirrhotic patients. Hep Mon. 2007 ; 7 (1). 27-32
82. Patton KM, Aranda-Michel J.. Nutritional aspects in liver disease and liver transplantation. Nutr Clin Pract. 2002 ; 17 (6). 332-340
83. Plauth M, Cabre E, Campillo B, et al. ESPEN Guidelines on Parenteral Nutrition: hepatology. Clin Nutr. 2009 ; 28 (4). 436-444
84. Campillo B, Richardet JP, Scherman E, Bories PN.. Evaluation of nutritional practice in hospitalized cirrhotic patients: results of a prospective study. Nutrition. 2003 ; 19 (6). 515-521
85. Tsiaousi ET, Hatzitolios AI, Trygonis SK, Savopoulos CG.. Malnutrition in end stage liver disease: recommendations and nutritional support. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008 ; 23 (4). 527-533
86. Plauth M, Merli M, Kondrup J, Weimann A, Ferenci P, Muller MJ.. ESPEN guidelines for nutrition in liver disease and transplantation. Clin Nutr. 1997 ; 16 (2). 43-55
87. Cordoba J, Lopez-Hellin J, Planas M, et al. Normal protein diet for episodic hepatic encephalopathy: results of a randomized study. J Hepatol. 2004 ; 41 (1). 38-43
88. Waller A, Chaudhary A Nutrition Support for the Critically Ill Patient. Cresci G, ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group ; 505-518.
89. Choban PS, Flancbaum L.. Nourishing the obese patient. Clin Nutr. 2000 ; 19 (5). 305-311
90. Breen HB, Ireton-Jones CS.. Predicting energy needs in obese patients. Nutr Clin Pract. 2004 ; 19 (3). 284-289
91. Frankenfield D, Roth-Yousey L, Compher C.. Comparison of predictive equations for resting metabolic rate in healthy nonobese and obese adults: a systematic review. J Am Diet Assoc. 2005 ; 105 (5). 775-789
92. Nishida T, Tsuji S, Tsujii M, et al. Oral glucose tolerance test predicts prognosis of patients with liver cirrhosis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2006 ; 101 (1). 70-75
93. Runyon BA.. Management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis: an update. Hepatology. 2009 ; 49 (6). 2087-2107
94. Moore KP, Aithal GP.. Guidelines on the management of ascites in cirrhosis. Gut. 2006 ; 55 :
95. Verboeket-van de, Venne WP, Westerterp KR, van Hoek B, Swart GR.. Energy expenditure and substrate metabolism in patients with cirrhosis of the liver: effects of the pattern of food intake. Gut. 1995 ; 36 (1). 110-116
96. Plank LD, Gane EJ, Peng S, et al. Nocturnal nutritional supplementation improves total body protein status of patients with liver cirrhosis: a randomized 12-month trial. Hepatology. 2008 ; 48 (2). 557-566
97. Christiansen R, Melholt Rasmussen L, Nybo H, Steenstrup T, Nybo M.. The relationship between HbA(1c) and fasting plasma glucose in patients with increased plasma liver enzyme measurements. Diabetes Med. 2012 ; 29 (6). 742-747
98. Gauthier A, Levy VG, Quinton A, et al. Salt or no salt in the treatment of cirrhotic ascites: a randomised study. Gut. 1986 ; 27 (6). 705-709
99. Gines P, Cardenas A, Arroyo V, Rodes J.. Management of cirrhosis and ascites. N Engl J Med. 2004 ; 350 (16). 1646-1654
100. Cabre E, Gassull MA.. Nutritional aspects of liver disease and transplantation. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2001 ; 4 (6). 581-589
101. Palmer M Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease. GE Mullin MP, ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group ; 159-170.
102. Verne GN, Soldevia-Pico C, Robinson ME, Spicer KM, Reuben A.. Autonomic dysfunction and gastroparesis in cirrhosis. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2004 ; 38 (1). 72-76
103. Metheny NA.. Preventing respiratory complications of tube feedings: evidence-based practice. Am J Crit Care. 2006 ; 15 (4). 360-369
104. Cavicchi M, Beau P, Crenn P, Degott C, Messing B.. Prevalence of liver disease and contributing factors in patients receiving home parenteral nutrition for permanent intestinal failure. Ann Intern Med. 2000 ; 132 (7). 525-532
105. Gabe SM, Culkin A. Abnormal liver function tests in the parenteral nutrition fed patient. Frontline Gastroenterology. 2010 (1). 98-104
106. Owen OE, Trapp VE, Reichard GA, et al. Nature and quantity of fuels consumed in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. J Clin Invest. 1983 ; 72 (5). 1821-1832
107. Schneeweiss B, Graninger W, Ferenci P, et al. Energy metabolism in patients with acute and chronic liver disease. Hepatology. 1990 ; 11 (3). 387-393
108. Caruana S.. Hepatic encephalopathy: are NH4 levels and protein restriction obsolete?. Pract Gastroenterol. 2001 ; 95: 6-19
109. Silk DB.. Branched chain amino acids in liver disease: fact or fantasy?. Gut. 1986 ; 27: 103-110
110. Fischer JE, Baldessarini RJ.. False neurotransmitters and hepatic failure. Lancet. 1971 ; 2 (7715). 75-80
111. Fischer JE, Rosen HM, Ebeid AM, James JH, Keane JM, Soeters PB.. The effect of normalization of plasma amino acids on hepatic encephalopathy in man. Surgery. 1976 ; 80 (1). 77-91
112. Wahren J, Denis J, Desurmont P, et al. Is intravenous administration of branched chain amino acids effective in the treatment of hepatic encephalopathy? A multicenter study. Hepatology. 1983 ; 3 (4). 475-480
113. Marchesini G, Bianchi G, Merli M, et al. Nutritional supplementation with branched-chain amino acids in advanced cirrhosis: a double-blind, randomized trial. Gastroenterology. 2003 ; 124 (7). 1792-1801
114. Muto Y, Sato S, Watanabe A, et al. Effects of oral branched-chain amino acid granules on event-free survival in patients with liver cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005 ; 3 (7). 705-713
115. Nakaya Y, Okita K, Suzuki K, et al. BCAA-enriched snack improves nutritional state of cirrhosis. Nutrition. 2007 ; 23 (2). 113-120
116. Romero-Gomez M, Grande L, Camacho I, Benitez S, Irles JA, Castro M. Altered response to oral glutamine challenge as prognostic factor for overt episodes in patients with minimal hepatic encephalopathy. J Hepatol. 2002 ; 37 (6). 781-787
117. Malaguarnera M, Gargante MP, Malaguarnera G, et al. Bifidobacterium combined with fructo-oligosaccharide versus lactulose in the treatment of patients with hepatic encephalopathy. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2010 ; 22 (2). 199-206
118. Malaguarnera M, Greco F, Barone G, Gargante MP, Toscano MA. treatment in minimal hepatic encephalopathy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Dig Dis Sci ; 2007: 3259-3265.
119. Bajaj JS, Saeian K, Christensen KM, et al. Probiotic yogurt for the treatment of minimal hepatic encephalopathy. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008 ; 103 (7). 1707-1715
120. Rayes N, Seehofer D, Theruvath T, et al. Supply of pre- and probiotics reduces bacterial infection rates after liver transplantation - a randomized, double-blind trial. Am J Transplant. 2005 ; 5 (1). 125-130
121. Koretz RL, Avenell A, Lipman TO.. Nutritional support for liver disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 ;:
122. Souverein OW, de Boer WJ, Geelen A, et al. Uncertainty in intake due to portion size estimation in 24-hour recalls varies between food groups. J Nutr. Jul. 2011 ; 141 (7). 1396-1401
123. Gopalan S, Saran S, Sengupta R.. Practicalities of nutrition support in chronic liver disease. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2000 ; 3 (3). 227-229
124. Hwang TL, Lue MC, Chen LL.. Early use of cyclic TPN prevents further deterioration of liver functions for the TPN patients with impaired liver function. Hepatogastroenterology. 2000 ; 47 (35). 1347-1350
125. Gines P, Berl T, Bernardi M, et al. Hyponatremia in cirrhosis: from pathogenesis to treatment. Hepatology. 1998 ; 28 (3). 851-864
126. Oliver JA, Verna EC.. Afferent mechanisms of sodium retention in cirrhosis and hepatorenal syndrome. Kidney Int. 2010 ; 77 (8). 669-680
127. Sigal SH.. Hyponatremia in cirrhosis. J Hosp Med. 2012 ; 7: S14 - S17
128. Gines P, Cardenas A.. The management of ascites and hyponatremia in cirrhosis. Semin Liver Dis. 2008 ; 28 (1). 43-58
129. Sorrentino P, Castaldo G, Tarantino L, et al. Preservation of nutritional-status in patients with refractory ascites due to hepatic cirrhosis who are undergoing repeated paracentesis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012 ; 27 (4). 813-822
130. Salerno F, Guevara M, Bernardi M, et al. Refractory ascites: pathogenesis, definition and therapy of a severe complication in patients with cirrhosis. Liver Int. 2010 ; 30 (7). 937-947
131. Salerno F, Gerbes A, Gines P, Wong F, Arroyo V.. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Gut. 2007 ; 56 (9). 1310-1318
132. Sanyal AJ, Bosch J, Blei A, Arroyo V.. Portal hypertension and its complications. Gastroenterology. 2008 ; 134 (6). 1715-1728
133. Salerno F, Gerbes A, Gines P, Wong F, Arroyo V.. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Postgrad Med J. 2008 ; 84 (998). 662-670
134. OdgenCLCarrollMDKitBFlegalK.Prevalence of Obesity in the United States, 2009-2010. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2012. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/ databriefs/db82.pdf
135. Leonard J, Heimbach JK, Malinchoc M, Watt K, Charlton M.. The impact of obesity on long-term outcomes in liver transplant recipients-results of the NIDDK liver transplant database. Am J Transplant. 2008 ; 8 (3). 667-672
136. Petrides AS, Stanley T, Matthews DE, Vogt C, Bush AJ, Lambeth H.. Insulin resistance in cirrhosis: prolonged reduction of hyperinsulinemia normalizes insulin sensitivity. Hepatology. 1998 ; 28 (1). 141-149
137. Petrides AS, Vogt C, Schulze-Berge D, Matthews D, Strohmeyer G.. Pathogenesis of glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus in cirrhosis. Hepatology. 1994 ; 19 (3). 616-627
138. Brudevold R, Hole T, Hammerstrom J.. Hyperferritinemia is associated with insulin resistance and fatty liver in patients without iron overload. PLoS One. 2008 ; 3 (10). e3547
139. Valenti L, Fracanzani AL, Dongiovanni P, et al. Iron depletion by phlebotomy improves insulin resistance in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and hyperferritinemia: evidence from a case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007 ; 102 (6). 1251-1258
140. El-Serag HB, Tran T, Everhart JE.. Diabetes increases the risk of chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2004 ; 126 (2). 460-468
141. Allison ME, Wreghitt T, Palmer CR, Alexander GJ.. Evidence for a link between hepatitis C virus infection and diabetes mellitus in a cirrhotic population. J Hepatol. 1994 ; 21 (6). 1135-1139
142. Grimbert S, Valensi P, Levy-Marchal C, et al. High prevalence of diabetes mellitus in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a case-control study. Gastroenterol Clin Biol. 1996 ; 20: 544-548
143. Knobler H, Schattner A.. TNF-α, chronic hepatitis C and diabetes: a novel triad. QJM. 2005 ; 98 (1). 1-6
144. Harrison SA.. Liver disease in patients with diabetes mellitus. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2006 ; 40 (1). 68-76
145. Antonelli A, Ferri C, Ferrari SM, Colaci M, Sansonno D, Fallahi P.. Endocrine manifestations of hepatitis C virus infection. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2009 ; 5 (1). 26-34
146. Petrides AS, Groop LC, Riely CA, DeFronzo RA.. Effect of physiologic hyperinsulinemia on glucose and lipid metabolism in cirrhosis. J Clin Invest. 1991 ; 88 (2). 561-570
147. Muller MJ, Willmann O, Rieger A, et al. Mechanism of insulin resistance associated with liver cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 1992 ; 102 (6). 2033-2041
148. Hickman IJ, Clouston AD, Macdonald GA, et al. Effect of weight reduction on liver histology and biochemistry in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Gut. 2002 ; 51 (1). 89-94
149. Klein S, Sheard NF, Pi-Sunyer X, et al. Weight management through lifestyle modification for the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes: rationale and strategies: a statement of the American Diabetes Association, the North American Association for the Study of Obesity, and the American Society for Clinical Nutrition. Diabetes Care. 2004 ; 27 (8). 2067-2073
150. Suzuki A, Lindor K, St Saver J, et al. Effect of changes on body weight and lifestyle in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol. 2005 ; 43 (6). 1060-1066
151. Cotler SJ, Vitello JM, Guzman G, Testa G, Benedetti E, Layden TJ.. Hepatic decompensation after gastric bypass surgery for severe obesity. Dig Dis Sci. 2004 ; 49 (10). 1563-1568
152. Blackburn GL, Mun EC.. Effects of weight loss surgeries on liver disease. Semin Liver Dis. 2004 ; 24 (4). 371-379
153. Harrison SA, Ramrakhiani S, Brunt EM, Anbari MA, Cortese C, Bacon BR.. Orlistat in the treatment of NASH: a case series. Am J Gastroenterol. 2003 ; 98 (4). 926-930
154. Smith SR, Weissman NJ, Anderson CM, et al. Multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of lorcaserin for weight management. N Engl J Med. 2010 ; 363 (3). 245-256