Current and future options for the management of phantom-limb pain

Journal of Pain Research

Volumn 5, Issue , 2012, Pages 39-49

  Knotkova, Helena ^a,b   Cruciani, Ricardo A ^a,b   Tronnier, Volker M ^c   Rasche, Dirk ^c  

^a BETH ISRAEL MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF LÜBECK   (Germany)

Author keywords

Invasive treatment; Neuromodulation; Neuropathic pain; Non invasive treatment; Phantom limb pain (PLP)

Indexed keywords

ALPRAZOLAM; AMFEBUTAMONE; AMITRIPTYLINE; BACLOFEN; CAPSAICIN; CARBAMAZEPINE; DIAZEPAM; DULOXETINE; ESCITALOPRAM; FLUOXETINE; GABAPENTIN; KETAMINE; LAMOTRIGINE; LEVORPHANOL; MEMANTINE; METHADONE; MILNACIPRAN; MORPHINE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OXYCODONE; PARACETAMOL; PAROXETINE; PHENYTOIN; PREGABALIN; SODIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; TOPIRAMATE; TRAMADOL; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID;

BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; CARDIOTOXICITY; CONSTIPATION; DEMENTIA; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DORSAL RHIZOTOMY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY; ELECTROSTIMULATION; FIBROMYALGIA; GANGLIONECTOMY; HUMAN; HYPNOSIS; IMAGERY; INSOMNIA; LIMB PAIN; MIGRAINE; MOTOR CORTEX STIMULATION; MOTOR IMAGERY; NERVE BLOCK; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NON INVASIVE PROCEDURE; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PHANTOM PAIN; PHYSIOTHERAPY; POSTHERPETIC NEURALGIA; REFLEXOLOGY; REVIEW; SEDATION; SIDE EFFECT; SPINAL CORD STIMULATION; THERAPY; THERAPY EFFECT; TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION; TRANSCUTANEOUS NERVE STIMULATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; URINE RETENTION; VISUAL FEEDBACK THERAPY;

EID: 84872254992     PISSN: 11787090     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/JPR.S16733     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Kooijman CM, Dijkstra PU, Geertzen JH, Elzinga A, van der Schans CP. Phantom pain and phantom sensations in upper limb amputees: an epidemiological study. Pain. 2000;87(1):33-41.
2. Jensen TS, Krebs B, Nielsen J, Rasmussen P. Non-painful phantom limb phenomena in amputees: incidence, clinical characteristics and temporal course. Acta Neurol Scand. 1984;70(6):407-414.
3. Nikolajsen L, Jensen TS. Phantom limb pain. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87(1);107-116.
4. Subedi B, Grossberg GT. Phantom limb pain: mechanisms and treatment approaches. Pain Res Treat. 2011;2011:861605.
5. Hirsh AT, Dillworth TM, Ehde DM, Jensen MP. Sex differences in pain and psychological functioning in persons with limb loss. J Pain. 2010;11(1):79-86.
6. Bosmans JC, Geertzen JH, Post WJ, van der Schans CP, Dijkstra PU. Factors associated with phantom limb pain: a 3 1/2 year prospective study. Clin Rehab. 2010;24(5):444-453.
7. Ephraim PL, Wegener ST, MacKenzie EJ, Dillingham TR, Pezzin LE. Phantom pain, residual limb pain, and back pain in amputees: results of a national survey. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005;86(10)1910-1919.
8. Schley MT, Wilms P, Toepfner S, et al. Painful and non-painful phantom and stump sensations in acute traumatic amputees. J Trauma. 2008;65(4):858-864.
9. Borghi B, D'Addabbo M, White PF, et al. The use of prolonged peripheral neural blockade after lower extremity amputation: the effect on symptoms associated with phantom limb syndrome. Anesth analg. 2010;111(5):1308-1315.
10. Karanikolas M, Aretha D, Tsolakis I, et al. Optimized perioperative analgesia reduces chronic phantom limb pain intensity, prevalence, and frequency: a prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Anesthesiology. 2011;114(5):1144-1154.
11. Cohen LG, Bandinelli S, Findley TW, Hallett M. Motor reorganization after upper limb amputation in man. A study with focal magnetic stimulation. Brain. 1991;114(Pt 1B):615-627.
12. Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht S, et al. Phantom-limb pain as a correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation. Nature. 1995;375(6531):482-484.
13. Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Montoya P, et al. effects of regional anesthesia on phantom limb pain are mirrored in changes in cortical reorganization. J Neurosci. 1997;17(14):5503-5508.
14. Weeks SR, Anderson-Barnes VC, Tsao JW. Phantom limb pain: theories and therapies. Neurologist. 2010;16(5):277-286.
15. Flor H. Phantom-limb pain: characteristics, causes, and treatments. Lancet Neurol. 2002;1(3):182-189.
16. Nystrom B, Hagbarth KE. Microelectrode recordings from transsected nerves in amputees with phantom limb pain. Neurosci Lett. 1981;27(2):211-216.
17. Wall PD, Gutnick M. Ongoing activity in peripheral nerves: the physiology and pharmacology of impulses originating from a neuroma. Exp Neurol. 1974;43(3):580-593.
18. Wolpaw JR, Tennissen A. Activity-dependent spinal cord plasticity in health and disease. Annu Rev Neurosci. 2001;24:807-843.
19. Doubell TP, Mannion RJ, Woolf CJ. The dorsal horn: state dependent sensory processing, plasticity and the generation of pain. In: Wall PD, Melzack R, editors. Textbook of Pain. 4th ed. Edinburgh, UK: Churchill Livingstone; 1999:165-181.
20. Baron R. Mechanisms of disease: neuropathic pain-a clinical perspective. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2006;2(2):95-106.
21. Buonomano DV, Merzenich M. Cortical plasticity: from synapse to maps. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1998;21:149-186.
22. Lotze M, Montoya P, Erb M, et al. Activation of cortical and cerebellar motor areas during executed and imagined hand movements: an fMRI study. J Cogn Neurosci. 1999;11(5):491-501.
23. Lotze M, Flor H, Grodd W, Larbig W, Birbaumer N. Phantom movements and pain. An fMRI study in upper limb amputees. Brain. 2001;124(Pt 11):2268-2277.
24. Karl A, Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Cohen LG, Flor H. Reorganization of motor and somatosensory cortex in upper extremity amputees with phantom limb pain. J Neurosci. 2001;21(10): 3609-3618.
25. Karl A, Mühlnickel W, Kurth R, Flor H. Neuroelectric source imaging of steady-state movement-related cortical potentials in human upper extremity amputees with and without phantom limb pain. Pain. 2004;110(1-2):90-102.
26. Alviar MJ, Hale T, Dungca M. Pharmacologic interventions for treating phantom limb pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;12: CD006380.
27. O'Connor AB, Dworkin RH. Treatment of neuropathic pain: an overview of recent guidelines. Am J Med. 2009;122(10 Suppl 1):S22-S32.
28. Byrant B, Knights K, Salerno E. Pharmacology for Health Professionals. Amsterdam, Holland: Elsevier; 2007:270.
29. Attal N, Cruccua G, Baron R, et al. EFNS guidelines on the pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain: 2010 revision. Eur J Neurol. 2010;17(9):1113-e88.
30. Robinson LR, Czerniecki JM, Ehde DM, et al. Trial of amitriptyline for relief of pain in amputees: results of a randomized controlled study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(1):1-6.
31. Sato K, Higuchi H, Hishikawa Y. Management of phantom limb pain and sensation with milnacipran. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008;20(3):368.
32. Nikolajsen L, Finnerup NB, Kramp S, Vimtrup AS, Keller J, Jensen TS. A randomized study of the effects of gabapentin on postamputation pain. Anesthesiology. 2006;105(5):1008-1015.
33. Spiegel DR, Lappinen E, Gottlieb M. A presumed case of phantom limb pain treated successfully with duloxetine and pregabalin. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2010;32(2):228. e5-228. e7.
34. Hackworth RJ, Tokarz KA, Fowler IM, Wallace SC, Stedje-Larsen ET. Profound pain reduction after induction of memantine treatment in two patients with severe phantom limb pain. Anesth Analg. 2008;107(4): 1377-1379.
35. Schley M, Topfner S, Wiech K, et al. Continuous brachial plexus blockade in combination with the NMDA receptor antagonist memantine prevents phantom pain in acute traumatic upper limb amputees. Eur J Pain. 2007;11(3):299-308.
36. Zuniga RE, Schlicht CR, Abram SE. Intrathecal baclofen is analgesic in patients with chronic pain. Anesthesiology. 2000;92(3):876-880.
37. Omote K, Ohmori H, Kawamata M, Matsumoto M, Namiki A. Intrathecal buprenorphine in the treatment of phantom limb pain. Anesth Analg. 1995;80(5):1030-1032.
38. Bergmans L, Snijdelaar DG, Katz J, Crul BJ. Methadone for phantom limb pain. Clin J Pain. 2002;18(3):203-205.
39. Cruciani RA, Strada EA, Knotkova H. Neuropathic pain. In: Bruera E, Portenoy RK, editors. Cancer Pain-Assessment and Management. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2010:478-505.
40. Wilder-Smith CH, Hill LT, Laurent S. Postamputation pain and sensory changes in treatment-naive patients: characteristics and responses to treatment with tramadol, amitriptyline, and placebo. Anesthesiology. 2005;103(3):619-628.
41. Kuiken TA, Schechtman L, Harden RN. Phantom limb pain treatment with mirtazapine: a case series. Pain Pract. 2005;5(4):356-360.
42. Karanikolas M, Aretha D, Tsolakis I, et al. Optimized perioperative analgesia reduces chronic phantom limb pain intensity, prevalence, and frequency: a prospective, randomized, clinical trial. Anesthesiology. 2011;114(5):1144-1154.
43. Rasmussen S, Kehlet H. Management of nerves during leg amputation-a neglected area in our understanding of the pathogenesis of phantom limb pain. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2007;51(8):1115-1116.
44. Hayes C, Armstrong-Brown A, Burstal R. Perioperative intravenous ketamine infusion for the prevention of persistent post-amputation pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Anaesth Intens Care. 2004;32(3):330-338.
45. Wilson JA, Nimmo AF, Fleetwood-Walker SM, Colvin LA. A randomized double blind trial of the effect of preemptive epidural ketamine on persistent pain after lower limb amputation. Pain. 2008;135(1-2):108-118.
46. Fromm GH, Terrence CF, Chattha AS. Baclofen in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia: double-blind study and long-term follow up. Ann Neurol. 1984;15(3):240-244.
47. Pandey CK, Singh N, Singh PK. Gabapentin for refractory idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia. Indian Med Assoc. 2008;106(2):124-125.
48. Ehde DM, Jensen MP, Engel J, Turner JA, Hoffman AJ, Cardenas DD. Chronic pain secondary to disability: a review. Clin J Pain. 2003;19(1): 3-17.
49. Perez MA, Cohen LG. Principles and mechanisms of transcranial direct current stimulation. In: Knotkova H, Cruciani RA, Merrrick J, editors. Brain Stimulation in the Treatment of Pain. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc; 2010:113-129.
50. Canavero S, Bonicalzi V, Dotta M, Vighetti S, Asteggiano G, Cocito D. Transcranial magnetic cortical stimulation relieves central pain. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2002;78(3-4):192-196.
51. Andre-Obadia N, Peyron R, Mertens P, Mauguiere F, Laurent B, Garcia-Larea L. Transcranial magnetic stimulation for pain control. Double-blind study of different frequencies against placebo, and correlation with motor cortex stimulation efficacy. Clin Neurophysiol. 2006;117(7):1536-1544.
52. Lefaucheur J, Hatem S, Nineb A, et al. Somatotopic organization of the analgesic effects of motor cortex rTMS in neuropathic pain. Neurology. 2006;67(11):1998-2004.
53. Lefaucheur JP, Drouot X, Menard-Lefaucheur I, et al. Neurogenic pain relief by repetitive transcranial magnetic cortical stimulation depends on the origin and the site of pain. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004;75(4):612-616.
54. Hirayama A, Saitoh Y, Kishima H, et al. Reduction of intractable deafferentation pain by navigation-guided repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the primary motor cortex. Pain. 2006;122(1-2):22-27.
55. Topper R, Foltys H, Meister IG, Sparing R, Boroojerdi B. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the parietal cortex transiently ameliorates phantom limb pain-like syndrome. Clin Neurophysiol. 2003;114(8):1521-1530.
56. Khedr EM, Kotb H, Kamel NF, Ahmed MA, Sadek R, Rothwell JC. Longlasting antalgic effects of daily sessions of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in central and peripheral neuropathic pain. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005;76(6):833-838.
57. Di Rollo A, Pallanti S. Phantom limb pain: low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in unaffected hemisphere. Case Report Med. 2011;2011:130751.
58. MacIver K, Lloyd DM, Kelly S, Roberts N, Nurmikko T. Phantom limb pain, cortical reorganization and the therapeutic effects of mental imagery. Brain. 2008;131(Pt 8):2181-2191.
59. MacLachlan M, McDonald D, Waloch J. Mirror treatment of lower limb phantom pain: a case study. Disabil Rehabil. 2004;26(14-15): 901-904.
60. Brodie EE, Whyte A, Niven CA. Analgesia through the looking-glass? A randomized controlled trial investigating the effect of viewing a "virtual" limb upon phantom limb pain, sensation and movement. Euro J Pain. 2007;11(4):428-436.
61. Moseley GL, Gallace A, Spence C. Is mirror therapy all it is cracked to be? Current evidence and future directions. Pain. 2008;138(1):7-10.
62. Chan BL, Witt R, Charrow AP, et al. Mirror therapy for phantom limb pain. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(21):2206-2207.
63. Ramachandran VS, Rogers-Ramachandran D. Synaesthesia in phantom limbs induced with mirrors. Proc Bilo Sci. 1996;263(1369): 377-386.
64. Hashimoto R, Rothwell JC. Dynamic changes in corticospinal excitability during motor imagery. Exp Brain Res. 1999;125(1):75-81.
65. Diers M, Christmann C, Koeppe C, Ruf M, Flor H. Mirrored, imagined and executed movements differentially activate sensorimotor cortex in amputees with and without phantom limb pain. Pain. 2010;149(2):296-304.
66. Moseley GL. Graded motor imagery for pathologic pain: a randomised controlled trial. Neurology. 2006;67(12):2129-2134.
67. McCabe C. Mirror visual feedback therapy. A practical approach. J Hand Ther. 2011;24(2):170-178.
68. Beaumont G, Mercier C, Michon PE, Maloun F, Jackson PL. Decreasing phantom limb pain through observation of action and imagery. Case Series. 2011;12(2):289-299.
69. Ulger O. Effectiveness of phantom exercises for phantom limb pain: a pilot study. J Rehab Med. 2009;41(7):582-584.
70. Brown CA, Lido C. Reflexology treatment for patients with lower limb amputations and phantom limb pain: an exploratory pilot study. Complement Ther Clin Pract. 2008;14(2):124-131.
71. Giuffrida O, Simpson L, Halligan PW. Contralateral stimulation, using TENS, of phantom limb pain: two confirmatory cases. Pain Med. 2010;11(1):133-141.
72. Mulvey MR, Bagnall AM, Johnson MI, Marchant PR. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for phantom pain and stump pain following amputation in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(5):CD007264.
73. Sumitani M, Yozu A, Tomioka T, Yamada Y, Miyauchi S. Using the intact hand for objective assessment of phantom hand-perception. Eur J Pain. 2010;14(3):261-265.
74. Dietrich C, Walter-Walsh K, Preißler S, et al. Sensory feedback prosthesis reduces phantom limb pain: proof of a principle. Neurosci Lett. 2012;507(2):97-100.
75. Lotze M, Grodd W, Birbaumer N, Erb M, Huse E, Flor H. Does use of a myoelectric prosthesis prevent cortical reorganization and phantom limb pain? Nat Neurosci. 1999;2(6):501-502.
76. De Roos C, Veenstra AC, DeJongh A, et al. Treatment of chronic phantom limb pain using a trauma focused psychological approach. Pain Res Manag. 2010;15(2):65-71.
77. Dieckmann G, Witzmann A. Initial and long-term results of deep brain stimulation for chronic intractable pain. Appl Neurophysiol. 1982;45(1-2):167-172.
78. Heath RG, Mickle WA. Evaluation of 7-years' experience with depth electrode studies in human patients. In: O'Doherty DS, editor. Electrical Studies on the Unanesthetized Brain. New York, NY: P Hoeber; 1960:214-247.
79. Hosobuchi Y. Intracerebral stimulation for the relief of chronic pain. In: Youmans JR, editor. Neurological Surgery. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 1990:4128-4143.
80. Hosobuchi Y, Adams JE, Linchitz R. Pain relief by electrical stimulation of the central gray matter in human and its reversal by naloxone. Science. 1977;197(4299):183-186.
81. Hosobuchi Y, Adams JE, Rutkin B. Chronic thalamic stimulation for the control of facial anaesthesia dolorosa. Arch Neurol. 1973;29(3):158-161.
82. Kumar K, Toth C, Nath RK. Deep brain stimulation for intractable pain: a 15-year experience. Neurosurgery. 1997;40(4):736-746.
83. Mazars G, Ruge R, Mazars Y. Résultats de la stimulation du faisceau spino-thalamique et leur incidence sur la pathophysiologie de la douleur. Rev Neurol. 1960;103:136-138.
84. Mazars G, Merienne L, Cioloca C. Treatment of certain types of pain by implantable thalamic stimulators. Neurochirurgie. 1974;20(2):117-124.
85. Mazars GJ. Intermittent stimulation of nucleus ventralis posterolateralis for intractable pain. Surg Neurol. 1975;4(1):93-95.
86. Meyerson BA, Boethius J, Carlsson AM. Alleviation of malignant pain by electrical stimulation in the periventricular-periaqueductal region. Pain relief as related to stimulation sites. In: Albe-Fessard D, editor. Advances in Pain Research and Therapy. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1979:525-533.
87. Meyerson BA, Lindblom U, Linderoth B, Lind G, Herregodts P. Motor cortex stimulation as treatment of trigeminal neuropathic pain. Acta Neurochir Suppl (Wien). 1993;58:150-153.
88. Richardson DE, Akil H. Pain reduction by electrical brain stimulation in man. Part 1: Acute administration in periaqueductal and periventricular sites. J Neurosurg. 1977;47(2):178-183.
89. Richardson DE, Akil H. Pain reduction by electrical stimulation in man. Part 2: Chronic self-administration in the periventricular gray matter. J Neurosurg. 1977;47(2):184-194.
90. Kringelbach ML, Aziz TZ. Neuroethical principles of deep-brain stimulation. World Neurosurg. 2011;76(6):518-529.
91. Richardson DE, Akil H. Long term results of periventricular gray self-stimulation. Neurosurgery. 1977;1(2):199-202.
92. Spiegel EA, Wycis HT. Mesencephalotomy in treatment of intractable facial pain. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiat. 1953;69(1):1-13.
93. Tsubokawa T, Katayama Y, Yamamoto T, Hirayama T. Deafferentation pain and stimulation of the thalamic sensory relay nucleus: clinical and experimental study. Appl Neurophysiol. 1985;48(1-6):166-171.
94. Siegfried J, Cetinalp E. Neurosurgical treatment of phantom limb pain. In: Zimmermann M, editor. Phantom and Stump Pain. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag; 1981:148-155.
95. Walsh NE, Rogers JN. Injection procedures. In: DeLisa JA, Gans BM, Walsh NE, editors. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Principles and Practice, Volume 1. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005:311-361.
96. Adams JE. Naloxone reversal of analgesia produced by brain stimulation in human. Pain. 1976;2(2):161-166.
97. Rasche D, Ruppolt M, Stippich C, Unterberg A, Tronnier VM. Motor cortex stimulation for long-term relief of chronic neuropathic pain: a 10 year experience. Pain. 2006;121(2):43-52.
98. Nguyen JP, Nizard J, Keravel Y, Lefaucheur JP. Invasive brain stimulation for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Nat Rev Neurol. 2011;7(12):699-709.
99. Garcia-Larrea L, Peyron R, Mertens P, et al. Positron emission tomography during motor cortex stimulation for pain control. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1997;68(1-4 Pt 1):141-148.
100. Garcia-Larrea L, Peyron R, Mertens P, et al. Electrical stimulation of motor cortex for pain control: a combined PET-scan and electrophysiological study. Pain. 1999;83(2):259-273.
101. Mertens P, Nuti C, Sindou M, Guenot M, Peyron R, Garcia-Larrea LB. Precentral cortex stimulation for the treatment of central neuropathic pain: results of a prospective study in a 20-patient series. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 1999;73(1-4):122-125.
102. Roux FE, Ibarrola D, Lazorthes Y, Berry I. Chronic motor cortex stimulation for phantom limb pain: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study: technical case report. Neurosurgery. 2001;48(3):681-688.
103. Saitoh Y, Shibata M, Hirano SI, Hirata M, Moshimo T, Yoshimine T. Motor cortex stimulation for central and peripheral deafferentation pain. J Neurosurg. 2000;92(1):150-155.
104. Katayama Y, Yamamoto T, Kobayashi K, Kasai M, Oshima H, Fukaya C. Motor cortex stimulation for phantom limb pain: Comprehensive therapy with spinal cord and thalamic stimulation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2001;77(1-4):159-162.
105. Lima MC, Fregni F. Motor cortex stimulation for chronic pain. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Neurology. 2008;70(24):2329-2337.
106. Rasche D, Tronnier VM. Invasive treatment of chronic neuropathic pain syndromes: epidural stimulation of the motor cortex. In: Knotkova H, Cruciani R, Merrick J, editors. Brain Stimulation in the Treatment of Pain. New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc; 2010: 69-87.
107. Rasche D, Rinaldi PC, Young RF, Tronnier VM. Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of various chronic pain syndromes. Neurosurg Focus. 2006;21(6):E8.
108. Fagundes-Pereya WJ, Teixeira MJ, Reyns N, et al. Motor cortex stimulation for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 2010;68(6):923-929.
109. Fontaine D, Hamani C, Lozano A. Efficacy and safety of motor cortex stimulation for chronic neuropathic pain: critical review of the literature. J Neurosurg. 2009;110(2):251-256.
110. Canavero S, Bonicalzi. Therapeutic extradural cortical stimulation for central and neuropathic pain: a review. Clin J Pain. 2002;18(1): 48-55.
111. Oakley J, Prager J. Spinal cord stimulation: mechanisms of action. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2002;27(22):2574-2583.
112. Viswanathan A. Use of spinal cord stimulation in the treatment of phantom limb pain: case series and review of literature. Pain Pract. 2010;10(5):479-484.
113. Krainick JU, Thoder U. Spinal cord stimulation in post-amputation pain. In: Siegfried J, Zimmerman M, editors. Phantom and Stump Pain. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag; 2002:527-535.
114. Nitsche MA, Paulus W. Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol. 2000;527(3):633-639.
115. Fregni F, Gimenes R, Valle AS, et al. A randomized, shamcontrolled, proof of principle study of transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of pain in fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(12):3988-3998.
116. Fregni F, Boggio PS, Lima MC, et al. A sham-controlled, phase II trial of transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of central pain in traumatic spinal cord injury. Pain. 2006;122(1-2):197-209.
117. Grüner U, Eggers C, Ameli M, Sarfeld AS, Fink GR, Nowak DA. 1 Hz rTMS preconditioned by tDCS over the primary motor cortex in Parkinson's disease: effects on bradykinesia of arm and hand. J Neural Transm. 2010;117(2):207-216.
118. Fenton B, Fanning J, Boggio P, Fregni F. A pilot efficacy trial of tDCS for the treatment of refractory chronic pelvic pain. Brain Stimulation. 2008;1(3):260.
119. Knotkova H, Feldman D, Dvorkin E, Cruciani RA. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS): A novel strategy to alleviate neuropathic pain. J Pain Manag. 2008;1(3):271-275.
120. Wang LG, Chiao JW. Prostate cancer chemopreventive activity of phenethyl isothiocyanate through epigenetic regulation (review). Int J Oncol. 2010;3(37):533-539.