Shifting the paradigm in radiation safety

Dose-Response

Volumn 10, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 562-583

  Doss, Mohan ^a  

^a FOX CHASE CANCER CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging related diseases; Antioxidant stimulation; Immune system; LNT model; Low dose radiation; Radiation safety

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT;

AGING; ARTICLE; ATOMIC BOMB SURVIVOR; AUTOPSY; CANCER CELL; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER MORTALITY; CANCER RISK; CARCINOGENESIS; DECISION MAKING; DNA DAMAGE; GENE MUTATION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; LOW ENERGY RADIATION; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION SAFETY; TUMOR IMMUNOLOGY;

EID: 84871269510     PISSN: None     EISSN: 15593258     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2203/dose-response.11-056.Doss     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Alberts DS, Hess LM, Thomson CA and Chen Z. 2008. The Role of Diet, Physical Activity and Body Composition in Cancer Prevention-Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
2. Allison AC. 1970. Tumour development following immunosuppression. Proc R Soc Med 63: 1077-80.
3. Allison W. 2011. Risk perception and energy infrastructure, Written evidence submitted to UK Parliament [Online]. Available: http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201012/cmselect/cmsctech/writev/risk/m04.htm [Accessed Jan 8 2012].
4. Altekruse S, Kosary C, Krapcho M, Neyman N, Aminou R, Waldron W, Ruhl J, Howlader N, Tatalovich Z, Cho H, Mariotto A, Eisner M, Lewis D, Cronin K, Chen H, Feuer E, Stinchcomb D and Edwards BK (eds). 2010. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2007, based on November 2009 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, 2010. [Online]. National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD. Available: http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2007/ [Accessed Apr 23 2010].
5. Anderson RE and Lefkovits I. 1979. In vitro evaluation of radiation-induced augmentation of the immune response. Am J Pathol 97: 456-72.
6. Appleby L, Morrissey S, Bellmunt J and Rosenberg J. 2011. Management of treatment-related toxicity with targeted therapies for renal cell carcinoma: evidence-based practice and best practices. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 25: 893-915.
7. Averbeck D. 2009. Does scientific evidence support a change from the LNT model for low-dose radiation risk extrapolation? Health Phys 97: 493-504.
8. Baek KH, Oh KW, Lee WY, Lee SS, Kim MK, Kwon HS, Rhee EJ, Han JH, Song KH, Cha BY, Lee KW and Kang MI. 2010. Association of oxidative stress with postmenopausal osteoporosis and the effects of hydrogen peroxide on osteoclast formation in human bone marrow cell cultures. Calcif Tissue Int 87: 226-35.
9. Basen-Engquist K and Chang M. 2011. Obesity and cancer risk: recent review and evidence. Curr Oncol Rep 13: 71-6.
10. Becker K. 2004. One century of radon therapy. International Journal of Low Radiation 1: 333-357.
11. Belsky JL, Ishimaru T, Oashi T, Robertson TL and Taniguchi B. 1972. Leukocyte response to exercise in atomic bomb survivors. Radiat Res 50: 699-707.
12. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, Simonetti RG and Gluud C. 2007. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 297: 842-57.
13. Blankenbecler R. 2010. Low-dose pretreatment for radiation therapy. Dose Response 8: 534-42.
14. Bonda DJ, Wang X, Perry G, Nunomura A, Tabaton M, Zhu X and Smith MA. 2010. Oxidative stress in Alzheimer disease: a possibility for prevention. Neuropharmacology 59: 290-4.
15. Brenner DJ and Sachs RK. 2006. Estimating radiation-induced cancer risks at very low doses: rationale for using a linear no-threshold approach. Radiat Environ Biophys 44: 253-6.
16. Briones AM and Touyz RM. 2009. Moderate exercise decreases inflammation and oxidative stress in hypertension: but what are the mechanisms? Hypertension 54: 1206-8.
17. Calabrese E. 2011. Improving the scientific foundations for estimating health risks from the Fukushima incident. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108: 19447-8.
18. Calabrese EJ. 2009. The road to linearity: why linearity at low doses became the basis for carcinogen risk assessment. Arch Toxicol 83: 203-25.
19. Cameron JR. 2002. A prospective study should be performed to test the hypothesis that an increase in background radiation to residents in the gulf states will increase their longevity. For the proposition. Med Phys 29: 1511-2.
20. Celer V. 1990. Suppressive effects of ionizing radiation on immunoproductive cells in laboratory mice. Vet Med (Praha) 35: 495-500.
21. Chen Y, Jungsuwadee P, Vore M, Butterfield DA and St Clair DK. 2007. Collateral damage in cancer chemotherapy: oxidative stress in nontargeted tissues. Mol Interv 7: 147-56.
22. Cohen B. 2007. The Cancer Risk from Low-Level Radiation. In: Tack, D. and Gevenois, P. (eds.) Radiation Dose from Adult and Pediatric Multidetector Computed Tomography. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
23. Cohen BL. 2002. Cancer risk from low-level radiation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 179: 1137-43.
24. Cook R and Calabrese EJ. 2006. The importance of hormesis to public health. Environ Health Perspect 114: 1631-5.
25. Cukier D 2005. Coping with chemotherapy and radiation, New York, McGraw-Hill.
26. Cuttler JM and Pollycove M. 2009. Nuclear energy and health: and the benefits of low-dose radiation hormesis. Dose Response 7: 52-89.
27. De Lisio M, Phan N, Boreham DR and Parise G. 2011. Exercise-induced protection of bone marrow cells following exposure to radiation. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 36: 80-7.
28. Dunn GP, Old LJ and Schreiber RD. 2004. The three Es of cancer immunoediting. Annu Rev Immunol 22: 329-60.
29. Falkenbach A, Kovacs J, Franke A, Jorgens K and Ammer K. 2005. Radon therapy for the treatment of rheumatic diseases-review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Rheumatol Int 25: 205-10.
30. Farooque A, Mathur R, Verma A, Kaul V, Bhatt AN, Adhikari JS, Afrin F, Singh S and Dwarakanath BS. 2011. Low-dose radiation therapy of cancer: role of immune enhancement. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 11: 791-802.
31. Feinendegen LE. 2005. Evidence for beneficial low level radiation effects and radiation hormesis. Br J Radiol 78: 3-7.
32. Frazer IH, Leggatt GR and Mattarollo SR. 2011. Prevention and treatment of papillomavirus-related cancers through immunization. Annu Rev Immunol 29: 111-38.
33. Gleeson M. 2000. Special feature for the Olympics: effects of exercise on the immune system. Overview: exercise immunology. Immunol Cell Biol 78: 483-4.
34. Hall EJ and Giaccia AJ 2006. Radiobiology for the radiologist, Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
35. Halliwell B. 2011. Free radicals and antioxidants-quo vadis? Trends Pharmacol Sci 32: 125-30.
36. Hamanaka Y, Suehiro Y, Fukui M, Shikichi K, Imai K and Hinoda Y. 2003. Circulating anti-MUC1 IgG antibodies as a favorable prognostic factor for pancreatic cancer. Int J Cancer 103: 97-100.
37. Hashimoto S, Shirato H, Hosokawa M, Nishioka T, Kuramitsu Y, Matushita K, Kobayashi M and Miyasaka K. 1999. The suppression of metastases and the change in host immune response after low-dose total-body irradiation in tumor-bearing rats. Radiat Res 151: 717-24.
38. Hayase H, Ohshima Y, Takahashi M and Kojima S. 2008. The enhancement of Th1 immunity and the suppression of tumour growth by low-dose γ-radiation. International Journal of Low Radiation 5: 275-289.
39. Heitzer T, Schlinzig T, Krohn K, Meinertz T and Munzel T 2001. Endothelial Dysfunction, Oxidative Stress, and Risk of Cardiovascular Events in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease. Am Heart Assoc.
40. Henriksen EJ, Diamond-Stanic MK and Marchionne EM. 2011. Oxidative stress and the etiology of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Free Radic Biol Med 51: 993-9.
41. Hickey RJ, Bowers EJ and Clelland RC. 1983. Radiation hormesis, public health, and public policy: a commentary. Health Phys 44: 207-19.
42. Holick CN, Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, Titus-Ernstoff L, Bersch AJ, Stampfer MJ, Baron JA, Egan KM and Willett WC. 2008. Physical activity and survival after diagnosis of invasive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17: 379-86.
43. Hoover R and Fraumeni JF, Jr. 1973. Risk of cancer in renal-transplant recipients. Lancet 2: 55-7.
44. Hymowitz N. 2011. Smoking and cancer: a review of public health and clinical implications. J Natl Med Assoc 103: 695-700.
45. ICRP. 2007. The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP publication 103. Ann ICRP 37: 1-332.
46. Imaida K, Hasegawa R, Kato T, Futakuchi M, Takahashi S, Ogawa K, Asamoto M, Yamamoto T, Suzuki K, Inagaki T, Shinagawa N and Shirai T. 1997. Clinicopathological analysis on cancers of autopsy cases in a geriatric hospital. Pathol Int 47: 293-300.
47. Ina Y, Tanooka H, Yamada T and Sakai K. 2005. Suppression of thymic lymphoma induction by lifelong low-dose-rate irradiation accompanied by immune activation in C57BL/6 mice. Radiat Res 163: 153-8.
48. Ito M, Shibamoto Y, Ayakawa S, Tomita N, Sugie C and Ogino H. 2007. Low-dose whole-body irradiation induced radioadaptive response in C57BL/6 mice. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 48: 455-60.
49. Jaworowski Z. 1997. Beneficial effects of radiation and regulatory policy. Australas Phys Eng Sci Med 20: 125-38.
50. Jaworowski Z. 2008. The paradigm that failed. International Journal of Low Radiation 5: 151-155.
51. Jaworowski Z. 2010a. Observations on the Chernobyl Disaster and LNT. Dose Response 8: 148-71.
52. Jaworowski Z. 2010b. Radiation hormesis-a remedy for fear. Hum Exp Toxicol 29: 263-70.
53. Ji LL. 2002. Exercise-induced modulation of antioxidant defense. Ann N Y Acad Sci 959: 82-92.
54. John EM, Koo J and Horn-Ross PL. 2010. Lifetime physical activity and risk of endometrial cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19: 1276-83.
55. Jones C. 2011. Failing to adapt - the ageing immune system's role in cancer pathogenesis. Reviews in Clinical Gerontology 21: 209-218.
56. Jung C, Rong Y, Doctrow S, Baudry M, Malfroy B and Xu Z. 2001. Synthetic superoxide dismutase/ catalase mimetics reduce oxidative stress and prolong survival in a mouse amyotrophic lateral sclerosis model. Neurosci Lett 304: 157-60.
57. Kellerer AM. 2000. Risk estimates for radiation-induced cancer-the epidemiological evidence. Radiat Environ Biophys 39: 17-24.
58. Kenfield SA, Stampfer MJ, Chan JM and Giovannucci E. 2011a. Smoking and prostate cancer survival and recurrence. JAMA 305: 2548-55.
59. Kenfield SA, Stampfer MJ, Giovannucci E and Chan JM. 2011b. Physical activity and survival after prostate cancer diagnosis in the health professionals follow-up study. J Clin Oncol 29: 726-32.
60. Kennedy J. 1965. Radiosensitivity of the immune response to sheep red cells in the mouse, as measured by the hemolytic plaque method. The Journal of immunology 94: 715-722.
61. Khassaf M, Child RB, McArdle A, Brodie DA, Esanu C and Jackson MJ. 2001. Time course of responses of human skeletal muscle to oxidative stress induced by nondamaging exercise. J Appl Physiol 90: 1031-5.
62. Koana T and Tsujimura H. 2010. A U-shaped dose-response relationship between x radiation and sexlinked recessive lethal mutation in male germ cells of Drosophila. Radiat Res 174: 46-51.
63. Koebel CM, Vermi W, Swann JB, Zerafa N, Rodig SJ, Old LJ, Smyth MJ and Schreiber RD. 2007. Adaptive immunity maintains occult cancer in an equilibrium state. Nature 450: 903-7.
64. Kojima S, Matsuki O, Nomura T, Yamaoka K, Takahashi M and Niki E. 1999. Elevation of antioxidant potency in the brain of mice by low-dose gamma-ray irradiation and its effect on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced brain damage. Free Radic Biol Med 26: 388-95.
65. Kris-Etherton PM, Lichtenstein AH, Howard BV, Steinberg D and Witztum JL. 2004. Antioxidant vitamin supplements and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 110: 637-41.
66. Kusunoki Y and Hayashi T. 2008. Long-lasting alterations of the immune system by ionizing radiation exposure: implications for disease development among atomic bomb survivors. Int J Radiat Biol 84: 1-14.
67. Lawenda BD, Kelly KM, Ladas EJ, Sagar SM, Vickers A and Blumberg JB. 2008. Should supplemental antioxidant administration be avoided during chemotherapy and radiation therapy? J Natl Cancer Inst 100: 773-83.
68. Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, Mouw T, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A and Leitzmann MF. 2007. Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 99: 754-64.
69. Little MP, Wakeford R, Tawn EJ, Bouffler SD and Berrington de Gonzalez A. 2009. Risks associated with low doses and low dose rates of ionizing radiation: why linearity may be (almost) the best we can do. Radiology 251: 6-12.
70. Liu SZ. 2003. Nonlinear dose-response relationship in the immune system following exposure to ionizing radiation: mechanisms and implications. Nonlinearity Biol Toxicol Med 1: 71-92.
71. Liu SZ. 2007. Cancer control related to stimulation of immunity by low-dose radiation. Dose Response 5: 39-47.
72. Luckey TD 1980. Hormesis with ionizing radiation, Boca Raton, Fla., CRC Press.
73. Luckey TD 1991. Radiation hormesis, Boca Raton, Fla., CRC Press.
74. Luckey TD. 2008. Atomic bomb health benefits. Dose Response 6: 369-82.
75. Martin CJ. 2005. The LNT model provides the best approach for practical implementation of radiation protection. Br J Radiol 78: 14-6.
76. Martin SA, Pence BD and Woods JA. 2009. Exercise and respiratory tract viral infections. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 37: 157-64.
77. Martins RN, Harper CG, Stokes GB and Masters CL. 1986. Increased cerebral glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in Alzheimer's disease may reflect oxidative stress. J Neurochem 46: 1042-5.
78. Mine M, Yokota K and Shibata Y. 2011. Effects of Lifestyle on the mortality in Nagasaki A-bomb survivors, Poster POS10-5. In: 14th International Congress of Radiation Research, Warsaw, Poland. p121.
79. Mitchel RE. 2007. Cancer and low dose responses in vivo: implications for radiation protection. Dose Response 5: 284-91.
80. Mitchel RE, Hasu M, Bugden M, Wyatt H, Little MP, Gola A, Hildebrandt G, Priest ND and Whitman SC. 2011. Low-dose radiation exposure and atherosclerosis in ApoE/ mice. Radiat Res 175: 665-76.
81. Mitsunobu F, Yamaoka K, Hanamoto K, Kojima S, Hosaki Y, Ashida K, Sugita K and Tanizaki Y. 2003. Elevation of antioxidant enzymes in the clinical effects of radon and thermal therapy for bronchial asthma. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 44: 95-9.
82. Mottram ME and Hill HA. 1949. Radiation therapy of ringworm of the scalp. Calif Med 70: 189-93.
83. Nakatsukasa H, Tsukimoto M, Ohshima Y, Tago F, Masada A and Kojima S. 2008. Suppressing effect of low-dose gamma-ray irradiation on collagen-induced arthritis. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 49: 381-9.
84. Nanetti L, Raffaelli F, Vignini A, Perozzi C, Silvestrini M, Bartolini M, Provinciali L and Mazzanti L. 2011. Oxidative stress in ischaemic stroke. Eur J Clin Invest.
85. NCRP 2001. Report No. 136-Evaluation of the Linear-Nonthreshold Dose-Response Model for Ionizing Radiation, Bethesda, MD, National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements.
86. Newton G. 1965. Tumor Susceptibility in Rats: Role of Infantile Manipulation and Later Exercise. Psychol Rep 16: 127-32.
87. Nieman DC. 2003. Current perspective on exercise immunology. Curr Sports Med Rep 2: 239-42.
88. Nomura T, Li XH, Ogata H, Sakai K, Kondo T, Takano Y and Magae J. 2011. Suppressive Effects of Continuous Low-Dose-Rate gamma Irradiation on Diabetic Nephropathy in Type II Diabetes Mellitus Model Mice. Radiat Res.
89. Nomura T and Sakai K. 2006. Suppressive effect of low-dose X-irradiation on type I diabetes nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. Int. J. Low Radiation 2: 28-33.
90. Nowosielska EM, Cheda A, Wrembel-Wargocka J and Janiak MK. 2010. Immunological mechanism of the low-dose radiation-induced suppression of cancer metastases in a mouse model. Dose Response 8: 209-26.
91. NRC 1990. Health effects of exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR V, National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations., Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.
92. NRC 2006. Health risks from exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2, National Research Council (U.S.). Committee to Assess Health Risks from Exposure to Low Level of Ionizing Radiation., Washington, D.C., National Academies Press.
93. Nussbaum RH. 1998. The linear no-threshold dose-effect relation: is it relevant to radiation protection regulation? Med Phys 25: 291-9.
94. Ogura K, Magae J, Kawakami Y and Koana T. 2009. Reduction in mutation frequency by very low-dose gamma irradiation of Drosophila melanogaster germ cells. Radiat Res 171: 1-8.
95. Parkin DM, Boyd L and Walker LC. 2011. 16. The fraction of cancer attributable to lifestyle and environmental factors in the UK in 2010. Br J Cancer 105 Suppl 2: S77-81.
96. Pathak CM, Avti PK, Kumar S, Khanduja KL and Sharma SC. 2007. Whole body exposure to low-dose gamma radiation promotes kidney antioxidant status in Balb/c mice. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 48: 113-20.
97. Peters EM and Bateman ED. 1983. Ultramarathon running and upper respiratory tract infections. An epidemiological survey. S Afr Med J 64: 582-4.
98. Phan N. 2011. Understanding The Biological Effects And Cancer Risk Of Medical Diagnostic Computed Tomography. Ph.D. Thesis, McMaster University.
99. Pinheiro SP, Hankinson SE, Tworoger SS, Rosner BA, McKolanis JR, Finn OJ and Cramer DW. 2010. Anti-MUC1 antibodies and ovarian cancer risk: prospective data from the Nurses' Health Studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19: 1595-601.
100. Plews M, Simon SL, Boreham DR, Parchaliuk D, Wyatt H, Mantha R, Frost K, Lamoureux L, Stobart M, Czub S, Mitchel RE and Knox JD. 2010. A radiation-induced adaptive response prolongs the survival of prion-infected mice. Free Radic Biol Med 49: 1417-21.
101. Portess DI, Bauer G, Hill MA and O'Neill P. 2007. Low-dose irradiation of nontransformed cells stimulates the selective removal of precancerous cells via intercellular induction of apoptosis. Cancer Res 67: 1246-53.
102. Preston DL, Shimizu Y, Pierce DA, Suyama A and Mabuchi K. 2003. Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: Solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950-1997. Radiat Res 160: 381-407.
103. Preston RJ. 2003. The LNT model is the best we can do-today. J Radiol Prot 23: 263-8.
104. Radak Z, Chung HY, Koltai E, Taylor AW and Goto S. 2008.Exercise, oxidative stress and hormesis. Ageing Res Rev 7: 34-42.
105. Rashkis HA. 1952. Systemic stress as an inhibitor of experimental tumors in Swiss mice. Science 116: 169-71.
106. Redout EM, van der Toorn A, Zuidwijk MJ, van de Kolk CW, van Echteld CJ, Musters RJ, van Hardeveld C, Paulus WJ and Simonides WS. 2010. Antioxidant treatment attenuates pulmonary arterial hypertension-induced heart failure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 298: H1038-47.
107. Richards SC and Scott DL. 2002. Prescribed exercise in people with fibromyalgia: parallel group randomised controlled trial. BMJ 325: 185.
108. Richtig E, Ambros-Rudolph CM, Trapp M, Lackner HK, Hofmann-Wellenhof R, Kerl H and Schwaberger G. 2008. Melanoma markers in marathon runners: increase with sun exposure and physical strain. Dermatology 217: 38-44.
109. Ristow M, Zarse K, Oberbach A, Kloting N, Birringer M, Kiehntopf M, Stumvoll M, Kahn CR and Bluher M. 2009. Antioxidants prevent health-promoting effects of physical exercise in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106: 8665-70.
110. Rusch H and Kiline B. 1944. The Effect of Exercise on the Growth of a Mouse Tumor. Cancer Research 4: 116-118.
111. Sakamoto K. 2004. Radiobiological basis for cancer therapy by total or half-body irradiation. Nonlinearity Biol Toxicol Med 2: 293-316.
112. Sanders CL 2010. Radiation hormesis and the linear-no-threshold assumption, Heidelberg, Springer.
113. Schurks M, Glynn RJ, Rist PM, Tzourio C and Kurth T. 2010. Effects of vitamin E on stroke subtypes: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 341: c5702.
114. Scott B. 2011. Residential Radon Appears to Prevent Lung Cancer. Dose-Response 9: 444-464.
115. Scott BR. 2008. It's time for a new low-dose-radiation risk assessment paradigm-one that acknowledges hormesis. Dose Response 6: 333-51.
116. Sell S. 2011. Infection, stem cells and cancer signals. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 12: 182-8.
117. Sheikh-Ali M, Chehade JM and Mooradian AD. 2011. The antioxidant paradox in diabetes mellitus. Am J Ther 18: 266-78.
118. Sinclair WK. 1981. Radiation protection: the NCRP guidelines and some considerations for the future. Yale J Biol Med 54: 471-84.
119. Soos G, Tsakiris I, Szanto J, Turzo C, Haas PG and Dezso B. 2005. The prevalence of prostate carcinoma and its precursor in Hungary: an autopsy study. Eur Urol 48: 739-44.
120. Spector A. 1995. Oxidative stress-induced cataract: mechanism of action. Faseb J 9: 1173-82.
121. Stampfli MR and Anderson GP. 2009. How cigarette smoke skews immune responses to promote infection, lung disease and cancer. Nat Rev Immunol 9: 377-384.
122. Takahashi M and Kojima S. 2006. Suppression of atopic dermatitis and tumor metastasis in mice by small amounts of radon. Radiat Res 165: 337-42.
123. Tanaka T, Tago F, Fang SP, Shimura N and Kojima S. 2005. Repeated 0.5-Gy gamma-ray irradiation attenuates autoimmune manifestations in MRL-lpr/lpr mice. Int J Radiat Biol 81: 731-40.
124. Testino G, Ancarani O and Scafato E. 2011. [Alcohol consumption and cancer risk]. Recenti Prog Med 102: 399-406.
125. Thomas R. 1994. The US radium luminisers: a case for a policy of 'below regulatory concern' J. Radiol. Prot. 14: 141-153.
126. Tubiana M. 2005. Dose-effect relationship and estimation of the carcinogenic effects of low doses of ionizing radiation: the joint report of the Academie des Sciences (Paris) and of the Academie Nationale de Medecine. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 63: 317-9.
127. Tubiana M, Feinendegen LE, Yang C and Kaminski JM. 2009. The linear no-threshold relationship is inconsistent with radiation biologic and experimental data. Radiology 251: 13-22.
128. Ullrich RL and Storer JB. 1979. Influence of gamma irradiation on the development of neoplastic disease in mice. II. Solid tumors. Radiat Res 80: 317-24.
129. Vajdic CM and van Leeuwen MT. 2009a. Cancer incidence and risk factors after solid organ transplantation. Int J Cancer 125: 1747-54.
130. Vajdic CM and van Leeuwen MT. 2009b. What types of cancers are associated with immune suppression in HIV? Lessons from solid organ transplant recipients. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 4: 35-41.
131. Vasanthi P, Nalini G and Rajasekhar G. 2009. Status of oxidative stress in rheumatoid arthritis. Int J Rheum Dis 12: 29-33.
132. Villeneuve PJ, Morrison HI and Lane R. 2007. Radon and lung cancer risk: an extension of the mortality follow-up of the Newfoundland fluorspar cohort. Health Phys 92: 157-69.
133. Wang GJ, Li XK, Sakai K and Lu C. 2008. Low-dose radiation and its clinical implications: diabetes. Hum Exp Toxicol 27: 135-42.
134. Wang H and Diepgen TL. 2005. Is atopy a protective or a risk factor for cancer? A review of epidemiological studies. Allergy 60: 1098-111.
135. Warburton DE, Nicol CW and Bredin SS. 2006. Health benefits of physical activity: the evidence. CMAJ 174: 801-9.
136. Weber J. 2007. Review: anti-CTLA-4 antibody ipilimumab: case studies of clinical response and immune-related adverse events. Oncologist 12: 864-72.
137. Weinberger B, Herndler-Brandstetter D, Schwanninger A, Weiskopf D and Grubeck-Loebenstein B. 2008. Biology of immune responses to vaccines in elderly persons. Clin Infect Dis 46: 1078-84.
138. Welch HG and Black WC. 2010. Overdiagnosis in cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 102: 605-13.
139. WHO. 2011. Number of Registered Deaths [Online]. World Health Organization. Available: http://apps.who.int/whosis/database/mort/table1.cfm [Accessed June 26, 2011].
140. Wu N, Jin SZ, Pan XN and Liu SZ. 2008. Increase in efficacy of cancer radiotherapy by combination with whole-body low dose irradiation. Int J Radiat Biol 84: 201-10.
141. Yamaoka K, Edamatsu R and Mori A. 1991. Increased SOD activities and decreased lipid peroxide levels induced by low dose X irradiation in rat organs. Free Radic Biol Med 11: 299-306.
142. Yamaoka K and Komoto Y. 1996. Experimental study of alleviation of hypertension, diabetes and pain by radon inhalation. Physiol Chem Phys Med NMR 28: 1-5.
143. Yu HS, Song AQ, Lu YD, Qiu WS and Shen FZ. 2004. Effects of low-dose radiation on tumor growth, erythrocyte immune function and SOD activity in tumor-bearing mice. Chin Med J (Engl) 117: 1036-9.
144. Zhang C, Jin S, Guo W, Li C, Li X, Rane MJ, Wang G and Cai L. 2011. Attenuation of diabetes-induced cardiac inflammation and pathological remodeling by low-dose radiation. Radiat Res 175: 307-21.
145. Zhang J, Perry G, Smith MA, Robertson D, Olson SJ, Graham DG and Montine TJ. 1999. Parkinson's disease is associated with oxidative damage to cytoplasmic DNA and RNA in substantia nigra neurons. Am J Pathol 154: 1423-9.