The evolutionary history of the development of the pelvic fin/hindlimb

Journal of Anatomy

Volumn 222, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 114-133

  Don, Emily K ^a   Currie, Peter D ^b   Cole, Nicholas J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^b MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Development; Evolution; Hindlimb; Pelvic fin

Indexed keywords

BODY MOVEMENT; EVOLUTION; EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY; FIN (ORGAN); HINDLIMB; MUSCLE DEVELOPMENT; NONHUMAN; PELVIC FIN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TELEOST; TETRAPOD;

ANIMAL FINS; ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, DEVELOPMENTAL; GENES, HOMEOBOX; HINDLIMB; LIMB BUDS; PHYLOGENY; VERTEBRATES;

TETRAPODA; VERTEBRATA;

EID: 84871184961     PISSN: 00218782     EISSN: 14697580     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01557.x     Document Type: Review

References (207)

1. Agarwal P, Wylie JN, Galceran J, et al. (2003) Tbx5 is essential for forelimb bud initiation following patterning of the limb field in the mouse embryo. Development 130, 623-633.
2. Ahlberg PE (1989) Paired fin skeletons and relationships of the fossil group Porolepidormes (Osteichthyes: Sarcopterygii). Zool J Linn Soc 96, 119-166.
3. Ahlberg PE, Milner AR (1994) The origin and early diversification of tetrapods. Nature 368, 507-514.
4. Ahlberg PE, Clack JA, Blom H (2005) The axial skeleton of the Devonian tetrapod Ichthyostega. Nature 437, 137-140.
5. Ahlberg PE, Clack JA, Luksevics E, et al. (2008) Ventastega curonica and the origin of tetrapod morphology. Nature 453, 1199-1204.
6. Ahn D, Kourakis MJ, Rohde LA, et al. (2002) T-box gene tbx5 is essential for formation of the pectoral limb bud. Nature 417, 754-758.
7. Akam M (1998) Hox genes, homeosis and the evolution of segment identity: no need for hopeless monsters. Int J Dev Biol 42, 445-451.
8. Andrews RC (1921) A remarkable case of external hind limb in a humpback whale. Am Mus Novitates 9, 1-9.
9. Andrews SM, Westoll TS (1970) The postcranial skeleton of Eusthenopteron foordi Whiteaves. Trans R Soc Edinburgh 68, 207-328.
10. Balfour FM (1881) On the development of the skeleton of the paired fins of Elasmobranchii, considered in relation to its bearings on the nature of the limbs of the vertebrata. Proc Zool Soc Lond 1881, 656-671.
11. Barrow JR, Thomas KR, Boussadia-Zahui O, et al. (2003) Ectodermal Wnt3/β-catenin signaling is required for the establishment and maintenance of the apical ectodermal ridge. Genes Dev 17, 394-409.
12. Begemann G, Schilling TF, Rauch G Jr, et al. (2001) The zebrafish neckless mutation reveals a requirement for raldh2 in mesodermal signals that pattern the hindbrain. Development 128, 3081-3094.
13. Bejder L, Hall BK (2002) Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss. Evol Dev 4, 445-458.
14. Bell MA, Orti G (1994) Pelvic reduction in threespine stickleback from Cook Inlet Lakes: geographical distribution and intrapopulation variation. Copeia 1994, 314-325.
15. Boisvert CA (2005) The pelvic fin and girdle of Panderichthys and the origin of tetrapod locomotion. Nature 438, 1145-1147.
16. Boisvert CA, Mark-Kurik E, Ahlberg PE (2008) The pectoral fin of Panderichthys and the origin of digits. Nature 456, 636-638.
17. Boisvert CA, Ahlberg PE, Joss J (2009) Comparative Pelvic Development of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) and the Australian Lungfish (Neoceratodus Forsteri. In Boisvert, Catherine Anne. The Origin of Tetrapod Limbs and Girdles: Fossil and Developmental Evidence. 2009.). Uppsala: Uppsala University, Evolutionary Organism.
18. Boulet AM, Moon AM, Arenkiel BR, et al. (2004) The roles of Fgf4 and Fgf8 in limb bud initiation and outgrowth. Dev Biol 273, 361-372.
19. Burke AC, Nowicki JL (2003) A new view of patterning domains in the vertebrate mesoderm. Dev Cell 4, 159-165.
20. Burke AC, Nelson CE, Morgan BA, et al. (1995) Hox genes and the evolution of vertebrate axial morphology. Development 121, 333-346.
21. Callier V, Clack JA, Ahlberg PE (2009) Contrasting developmental trajectories in the earliest known tetrapod forelimbs. Science 324, 364-367.
22. Camp CL (1923) Classification of the lizards. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 48, 298-481.
23. Chan YF, Marks ME, Jones FC, et al. (2010) Adaptive evolution of pelvic reduction in sticklebacks by recurrent deletion of a Pitx1 enhancer. Science 327, 302-305.
24. Choe A, Phun HQ, Tieu DD, et al. (2006) Expression patterns of Hox10 paralogous genes during lumbar spinal cord development. Gene Expr Patterns 6, 730-737.
25. Clack JA (2000) The origin of tetrapods. Amphibian Biology Vol. 4, Paleontology; Chapter 2 (eds Heatwole H, Carroll RL), pp. 973-1029. New York: Surrey Beatty.
26. Clack JA, Ahlberg PE (2004) A New Stem Tetrapod from the Early Carboniferous of Northern Ireland. In Recent Advances in the Origin and Early Radiation of Vertebrates. München: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.
27. Clement G, Ahlberg PE, Blieck A, et al. (2004) Palaeogeography: Devonian tetrapod from western Europe. Nature 427, 412-413.
28. Coates MI (1993) Hox genes, fin folds and symmetry. Nature 364, 195-196.
29. Coates MI (1994) The origin of vertebrate limbs. Dev Suppl 1994, 169-180.
30. Coates MI (1996) The tetrapod Acanthostega gunnari Jarvik: postcranial skeleton, basal tetrapod relationships and patterns of skeletal evolution. Trans R Soc Edinb Earth Sci 87, 363-421.
31. Coates MI (2003) The evolution of paired fins. Theory Biosci 122, 266-287.
32. Coates MI, Clack JA (1990) Polydactyly in the earliest known tetrapod limbs. Nature 347, 66-69.
33. Coates M, Cohn M (1998) Fins, limbs, and tails: outgrowths and axial patterning in vertebrate evolution. BioEssays 000, 371-381.
34. Coates MI, Ruta M (2000) Nice snakes, shame about the legs. TREE 15, 503-507.
35. Coates MI, Jeffery JE, Ruta M (2002) Fins to limbs: what the fossils say. Evol Dev 4, 390-401.
36. Cohn MJ, Tickle C (1999) Developmental basis of limblessness and axial patterning in snakes. Nature 399, 474-479.
37. Cohn MJ, Izpisúa-Belmonte JC, Abud H, et al. (1995) Fibroblast growth factors induce additional limb development from the flank of chick embryos. Cell 80, 739-746.
38. Cohn MJ, Patel K, Krumlauf R, et al. (1997) Hox9 genes and vertebrate limb specification. Nature 387, 97-101.
39. Cole NJ, Tanaka M, Prescott A, et al. (2003) Expression of limb initiation genes and clues to the morphological diversification of threespine stickleback. Curr Biol 13, R951-R952.
40. Cole NJ, Hall TE, Don EK, et al. (2011) Development and evolution of the muscles of the pelvic fin. PLoS Biol 9, e1001168.
41. Crossley PH, Minowada G, MacArthur CA, et al. (1996) Roles for FGF8 in the induction, initiation, and maintenance of chick limb development. Cell 84, 127-136.
42. Cubbage CC, Mabee PM (1996) Development of the cranium and paired fins in the zebrafish Danio rerio (Ostariophysi, Cyprinidae). J Morphol 229, 121-160.
43. Dahn RD, Davis MC, Pappano WN, et al. (2007) Sonic hedgehog function in chondrichthyan fins and the evolution of appendage patterning. Nature 445, 311-314.
44. Davenport J (1992) Wing-loading, stability and morphometric relationships in flying fish (Exocoetidae) from the north-eastern Atlantic. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 72, 25-39.
45. Davenport J (1994) How and why do flying fish fly? Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 4, 184-214.
46. Davenport J (2003) Allometric constraints on stability and maximum size in flying fishes: implications for their evolution. J Fish Biol 62, 455-463.
47. DeLaurier A, Schweitzer R, Logan M (2006) Pitx1 determines the morphology of muscle, tendon, and bones of the hindlimb. Dev Biol 299, 22-34.
48. Deschamps J, van den Akker E, Forlani S, et al. (1999) Initiation, establishment and maintenance of Hox gene expression patterns in the mouse. Int J Dev Biol 43, 635-650.
49. Don EK, Hall TE, Currie PD, et al. (2011) Morphology of pelvic fin loss in a zebrafish strain (Danio rerio). J Morphol 272, 583-589.
50. Drucker EG, Lauder GV (2003) Function of pectoral fins in rainbow trout: behavioral repertoire and hydrodynamic forces. J Exp Biol 206, 813-826.
51. Duboc V, Logan MPO (2011) Pitx1 is necessary for normal initiation of hindlimb outgrowth through regulation of Tbx4 expression and shapes hindlimb morphologies via targeted growth control. Development 138, 5301-5309. DOI: http://dev.biologists.org/content/138/24/5301.long.
52. Durland JL, Sferlazzo M, Logan M, et al. (2008) Visualizing the lateral somitic frontier in the Prx1Cre transgenic mouse. J Anat 212, 590-602.
53. Echelard Y, Epstein DJ, St-Jacques B, et al. (1993) Sonic hedgehog, a member of a family of putative signaling molecules, is implicated in the regulation of CNS polarity. Cell 75, 1417-1430.
54. Essex R (1927) Studies in reptilian degeneration. Proc Zool Soc Lond 59, 879-945.
55. Fernandez-Teran M, Ros MA (2008) The apical ectodermal ridge: morphological aspects and signaling pathways. Int J Dev Biol 52, 857-871.
56. Fink WL (1985) Phylogenetic interrelationships of the stomiid fishes (Teleostei: Stomiiformes). Miscellaneous Publications Museum of Zoology, The University of Michigan 171, 1-127.
57. Fischer S, Draper BW, Neumann CJ (2003) The zebrafish fgf24 mutant identifies an additional level of Fgf signaling involved in vertebrate forelimb initiation. Development 130, 3515-3524.
58. Fleagle JG(1999) Primate Adaptation and Evolution, 2nd edn. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 596 p
59. Freitas R, Zhang G, Cohn MJ (2006) Evidence that mechanisms of fin development evolved in the midline of early vertebrates. Nature 442, 1033-1037.
60. Gans C (1975) Tetrapod limblessness: evolution and functional corollaries. Am Zool 15, 455-467.
61. Garcia-Fernandez J (2004) Hox, ParaHox, ProtoHox: facts and guesses. Heredity 94, 145-152.
62. Gaunt SJ (1994) Conservation in the Hox code during morphological evolution. Int J Dev Biol 38, 549-552.
63. Gegenbaur C (1878) Elements of Comparative Anatomy. London: Macmillan & Co.
64. Geraudie J (1978) Scanning electron microscope study of the developing trout pelvic fin bud. Anat Rec 191, 391-396.
65. Gibert Y, Gajewski A, Meyer A, et al. (2006) Induction and prepatterning of the zebrafish pectoral fin bud requires axial retinoic acid signaling. Development 133, 2649-2659.
66. Gibson-Brown J, Agulnuk S, Chapman D, et al. (1996) Evidence of a role for T-box genes in the evolution of limb morphogenesis and the specification of forelimb/hindlimb identity. Mech Dev 56, 93-101.
67. Goodrich ES (1930) Studies on the Structure and Development of Vertebrates. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
68. Gosline WA (1980) The evolution of some structural systems with reference to the interrelationships of modern lower teleostean fish groups. Jpn J Ichthyol 27, 1-28.
69. Goujet DF (2001) Placoderms and Basal Gnathostome Apomorphies. London: Systematics Association.
70. Grande L, Bemis WE (1991) Osteology and phylogenetic relationships of fossil and recent paddlefishes (Polyodontidae) with comments on the interrelationships of Acipenseriformes. J Vert Paleontol 11, (Supplement to Number 1), 1-121.
71. Grandel H, Brand M (2011) Zebrafish limb development is triggered by a retinoic acid signal during gastrulation. Dev Dyn 240, 1116-1126.
72. Grandel H, Schulte-Merker S (1998) The development of the paired fins in the Zebrafish (Danio rerio). Mech Dev 79, 99-120.
73. Grandel H, Lun K, Rauch G Jr, et al. (2002) Retinoic acid signalling in the zebrafish embryo is necessary during pre-segmentation stages to pattern the anterior-posterior axis of the CNS and to induce a pectoral fin bud. Development 129, 2851-2865.
74. Greene HW, Cundall D (2000) Limbless tetrapods and snakes with legs. Science 287, 1939-1941.
75. Greenwood PH, Rosen DE, Weitzman SH, et al. (1966) Phyletic studies of teleostean fishes, with a provisional classification of living forms. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 131, 339-456.
76. Gruss P, Kessel M (1991) Axial specification in higher vertebrates. Curr Opin Genet Dev 1, 204-210.
77. Haas G (1980) Pachyrhachis problematicus Haas, snakelike reptile from the Lower Cenomanian: ventral view of skull. Bull Mus Natl Hist Nat Paris 2, 87-104.
78. Harris JE (1937) The mechanical significance of the position and movements of the paired fins in the Teleostei. Pap Tortugas Lab Carnegie Inst Wash 16, 173-189.
79. Harris JE (1938) The role of the fins in the equilibrium of the swimming fish. II. The role of the pelvic fins. J Exp Biol 16, 32-47.
80. Hasson P, DeLaurier A, Bennett M, et al. (2010) Tbx4 and Tbx5 acting in connective tissue are required for limb muscle and tendon patterning. Dev Cell 18, 148-156.
81. Hatta K, Bremiller R, Westerfield M, et al. (1991) Diversity of expression of engrailed-like antigens in zebrafish. Development 112, 821-832.
82. Howell AB (1970) Aquatic Mammals. Their Adaptation to Life in the Water. New York: Dover Publications.
83. Inoue JG, Miya M, Tsukamoto K, et al. (2003) Basal actinopterygian relationships: a mitogenomic perspective on the phylogeny of the ancient fish. Mol Phylogenet Evol 26, 110-120.
84. Janvier P (1996). Early Vertebrates Monographs on Geology and Geophysics. New York: Oxford University Press.
85. Jarvik E (1980) Basic Structure and Evolution of Vertebrates. London: Academic Press.
86. Jarvik E (1996) The Devonian tetrapod Ichthyostega. Fossils Strata 40, 1-213.
87. Johanson Z (2010) Evolution of paired fins and the lateral somitic frontier. J Exp Zoolog Part B Mol Dev Evol 314B, 347-352.
88. Johanson Z, Joss J, Boisvert CA, et al. (2007) Fish fingers: digit homologues in sarcopterygian fish fins. J Exp Zoolog Part B Mol Dev Evol 308B, 757-768.
89. Kawakami Y, Capdevila J, Büscher D, et al. (2001) WNT signals control FGF-dependent limb initiation and AER induction in the chick embryo. Cell 104, 891-900.
90. Khan P, Linkhart B, Simon HG (2002) Different regulation of T-box genes Tbx4 and Tbx5 during limb development and limb regeneration. Dev Biol 250, 383-392.
91. King HM, Shubin NH, Coates MI, et al. (2011) Behavioral evidence for the evolution of walking and bounding before terrestriality in sarcopterygian fishes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108, 21146-21151.
92. Kmita M, Duboule D (2003) Organizing axes in time and space; 25 years of colinear tinkering. Science 301, 331-333.
93. Krauss S, Concordet JP, Ingham PW (1993) A functionally conserved homolog of the Drosophila segment polarity gene hh is expressed in tissues with polarizing activity in zebrafish embryos. Cell 75, 1431-1444.
94. Krumlauf R (1994) Hox genes in vertebrate development. Cell 78, 191-201.
95. Lamonerie T, Tremblay JJ, LanctÃ′t C, et al. (1996) Ptx1, a bicoid-related homeo box transcription factor involved in transcription of the pro-opiomelanocortin gene. Genes Dev 10, 1284-1295.
96. Lance-Jones C, Omelchenko N, Bailis A, et al. (2001) Hoxd10 induction and regionalization in the developing lumbosacral spinal cord. Development 128, 2255-2268.
97. Lanctot C, Moreau A, Chamberland M, et al. (1999) Hindlimb patterning and mandible development require the Ptx1 gene. Development 126, 1805-1810.
98. Lauder GV, Drucker EG (2004) Morphology and experimental hydrodynamics of fish fin control surfaces. IEEE J Oceanic Eng 29, 556-571.
99. Lebedev OA, Coates MI (1995) The postcranial skeleton of the Devonian tetrapod Tulerpeton curtum Lebedev. Zool J Linnean Soc 114, 307-348.
100. Lee MSY, Caldwell MW (1998) Anatomy and relationships of Pachyrhachis problematicus, a primitive snake with hindlimbs. Phil Trans R Soc Lond, Ser B 352, 1521-1552.
101. Lewandoski M, Sun X, Martin G (2000) Fgf8 signalling from the AER is essential for normal limb development. Nat Gen 26, 460-463.
102. Lewis EB (1978) A gene complex controlling segmentation in Drosophila. Nature 276, 565-570.
103. Liem KF, Summers AP (1999) Muscular System. Gross Anatomy and Functional Morphology of Muscles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
104. Logan M (2003) Finger or toe: the molecular basis of limb identity. Development 130, 6401-6410, DOI: http://dev.biologists.org/content/130/26/6401.long.
105. Logan M, Tabin CJ (1999) Role of Pitx1 upstream of Tbx4 in specification of hindlimb identity. Science 283, 1736-1739.
106. Logan M, Simon HG, Tabin C (1998) Differential regulation of T-box and homeobox transcription factors suggests roles in controlling chick limbtype identity. Development 125, 2825-2835.
107. Mabee PM (2000) Developmental data and phylogenetic systematics: evolution of the vertebrate limb. Am Zool 40, 789-800.
108. Mahmood R, Bresnick J, Hornbruch A, et al. (1995) A role for FGF-8 in the initiation and maintenance of vertebrate limb bud outgrowth. Curr Biol 5, 797-806.
109. Marcil A, Dumontier E, Chamberland M, et al. (2003) Pitx1 and Pitx2 are required for development of hindlimb buds. Development 130(1), 45-55.
110. Marshall H, Morrison A, Studer M, et al. (1996) Retinoids and Hox genes. FASEB J 10, 969-978.
111. Martin P (1990) Tissue patterning in the developing mouse limb. Int J Dev Biol 34, 323-336.
112. Matsuura K (1979) Phylogeny of the superfamily Balistoidea (Pisces: Tetraodontiformes). Mem Fac Fish Hokkaido Univ 26, 49-169.
113. McPherron AC, Lawler AM, Lee SJ (1999) Regulation of anterior/posterior patterning of the axial skeleton by growth/differentiation factor 11. Nat Genet 22, 260-264.
114. Menke DB, Guenther C, Kingsley DM (2008) Dual hindlimb control elements in the Tbx4 gene and region-specific control of bone size in vertebrate limbs. Development 135, 2543-2553.
115. Mercader N, Fischer S, Neumann CJ (2006) Prdm1 acts downstream of a sequential RA, Wnt and Fgf signaling cascade during zebrafish forelimb induction. Development 133, 2805-2815.
116. Minguillon C, Del Buono J, Logan MP (2005) Tbx5 and Tbx4 are not sufficient to determine limb-specific morphologies but have common roles in initiating limb outgrowth. Dev Cell 8, 75-84.
117. Minguillon C, Gibson-Brown JJ, Logan MP (2009) Tbx4/5 gene duplication and the origin of vertebrate paired appendages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106, 21726-21730.
118. Mivart SG (1879) On the fins of Elasmobranchii. Trans Zool Soc London 10, 439-484.
119. Moon A, Capecchi M (2000) Fgf8 is required for outgrowth and patterning of the limbs. Nat Gen 26, 455-459.
120. Murakami Y, Tanaka M (2011) Evolution of motor innervation to vertebrate fins and limbs. Dev Biol 355, 164-172.
121. Murata Y, Tamura M, Aita Y, et al. (2010) Allometric growth of the trunk leads to the rostral shift of the pelvic fin in teleost fishes. Dev Biol 347, 236-245.
122. Murillo-Ferrol NL (1965) Causal study of the earliest differentiation of the morphological rudiments of the extremities. Experimental analysis on bird embryos. Acta Anat (Basel) 62, 80-103.
123. Naiche LA, Papaioannou VE (2003) Loss of Tbx4 blocks hindlimb development and affects vascularization and fusion of the allantois. Development 130, 2681-2693.
124. Naiche LA, Papaioannou VE (2007) Tbx4 is not required for hindlimb identity or post-bud hindlimb outgrowth. Development 134, 93-103.
125. Naiche LA, Arora R, Kania A, et al. (2011) Identity and fate of Tbx4-expressing cells reveal developmental cell fate decisions in the allantois, limb, and external genitalia. Dev Dyn 240, 2290-2300.
126. Narita T, Sasaoka S, Udagawa K, et al. (2005) Wnt10a is involved in AER formation during chick limb development. Dev Dyn 233, 282-287.
127. Narita T, Nishimatsu S-i, Wada N, et al. (2007) A Wnt3a variant participates in chick apical ectodermal ridge formation: distinct biological activities of Wnt3a splice variants in chick limb development. Dev Growth Differ 49, 493-501.
128. Nelson JS (1993) Analysis of the multiple occurrence of pelvic fin absence in extant fishes. Matsya 15/16, 21-38.
129. Nelson JS (1994) Fishes of the World. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
130. Nelson C, Morgan B, Burke A, et al. (1996) Analysis of Hox gene expression in the chick limb bud. Development 122, 1449-1466.
131. Neyt C, Jagla K, Thisse C, et al. (2000) Evolutionary origins of vertebrate appendicular muscle. Nature 408, 82-86.
132. Nicolas N, Gallien CL, Chanoine C (1998) Expression of myogenic regulatory factors during muscle development of Xenopus: Myogenin mRNA accumulation if limited strictly to secondary myogenesis. Dev Dyn 213, 309-321.
133. Niedzwiedzki G, Szrek P, Narkiewicz K, et al. (2010) Tetrapod trackways from the early Middle Devonian period of Poland. Nature 463, 43-48.
134. Nomura R, Kamei E, Hotta Y, et al. (2006) Fgf16 is essential for pectoral fin bud formation in zebrafish. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 347, 340-346.
135. Noro M, Yuguchi H, Sato T, et al. (2011) Role of paraxial mesoderm in limb/flank regionalization of the trunk lateral plate. Dev Dyn 240, 1639-1649.
136. Norton WHJ, Ledin J, Grandel H, et al. (2005) HSPG synthesis by zebrafish Ext2 and Extl3 is required for Fgf10 signalling during limb development. Development 132, 4963-4973.
137. Ohuchi H, Nakagawa T, Yamauchi M, et al. (1995) An additional limb can be induced from the flank of the chick embryo by FGF4. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 209, 809-816.
138. Ouimette J-Fo, Jolin ML, L'Honoré A, et al. (2008) Divergent transcriptional activities determine limb identity. Nat Commun 1, 35.
139. Perantoni AO, Timofeeva O, Naillat F, et al. (2005) Inactivation of FGF8 in early mesoderm reveals an essential role in kidney development. Development 132, 3859-3871.
140. Peters DS (1985) Mechanical constraints canalizing the evolutionary transformation of tetrapod limbs. Acta Biotheor 34, 157-164.
141. Pierce SE, Clack JA, Hutchinson JR (2012) Three-dimensional limb joint mobility in the early tetrapod Ichthyostega. Nature, doi:10.1038/nature11124.
142. Presch W (1975) The evolution of limb reduction in the teiid lizard genus. Bachia Bull So Calif Acad Sci 74, 113-121.
143. Raff RA (2007) Written in stone: fossils, genes and evo-devo. Nat Rev Genet 8, 911-920.
144. Rage J-C, Escuillié F (2000) Un nouveau serpent bipède du Cénomanien (Crétacé). Implications phylétiques. CR Acad Sci Paris 330, 513-520.
145. Raynaud A (1990) Developmental mechanisms involved in the embryonic reduction of limbs in reptiles. Int J Dev Biol 34, 233-243.
146. Raynaud A, Okuzumi H, Kouprach S (1974) Morphologie externe des stades précoces du développement des ébauches des membres du Lézard vert 'Lacerta viridis Laur' et de l'Orvet 'Anguis fragilis L', etudié au moyen de la microscopie électronique à balayage. Bull Soc Zool France 99, 149-153.
147. Reifers F, Bohli H, Walsh E, et al. (1998) Fgf8 is mutated in zebrafish acerebellar (ace) mutants and is required for maintenance of midbrain-hindbrain boundary development and somitogenesis. Development 125, 2381-2395, DOI: http://dev.biologists.org/content/125/13/2381.long.
148. Rewcastle SC (1981) Stance and gait in tetrapods: an evolutionary scenario. Symp Zool Soc Lond 48, 239-267.
149. Richardson M, Carl T, Hanken J, et al. (1998) Limb development and evolution: a frog embryo with no apical ectodermal ridge (AER). J Anat 192(Pt 3), 379-390.
150. Riddle RD, Johnson RL, Laufer E, et al. (1993) Sonic hedgehog mediates the polarizing activity of the ZPA. Cell 75, 1401-1416.
151. Rieppel O (1988) A review of the origin of snakes. Evol Biol 22, 37-130.
152. Rodriguez-Esteban C, Tsukui T, Yonei S, et al. (1999) The T-box genes Tbx4 and Tbx5 regulate limb outgrowth and identity. Nature 398, 814-818.
153. Roelink H, Augsburger A, Heemskerk J, et al. (1994) Floor plate and motor neuron induction by vhh-1, a vertebrate homolog of hedgehog expressed by the notochord. Cell 76, 761-775.
154. Rosen DE (1982) Teleostean interrelationships, morphological function and evolutionary inference. Integr Comp Biol 22, 261-273.
155. Ruvinsky I, Gibson-Brown JJ (2000) Genetic and developmental bases of serial homology in vertebrate limb evolution. Development 127, 5233-5244.
156. Ruvinsky I, Oates AC, Silver LM, et al. (2000) The evolution of paired appendages in vertebrates: T-box genes in the zebrafish. Dev Genes Evol 210, 82-91.
157. Sabo MC, Nath K, Elinson RP (2009) Lbx1 expression and frog limb development. Dev Genes Evol 219, 609-612.
158. Santini F, Tyler JC (2003) A phylogeny of the families of fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes (Acanthomorpha, Tetraodontiformes), Upper Cretaceous to Recent. Zool J Linnean Soc 139, 565-617.
159. Satoh A, Sakamaki K, Ide H, et al. (2005) Characteristics of initiation and early events for muscle development in the Xenopus limb bud. Dev Dyn 234, 846-857.
160. Saunders JW (1948) The proximo-distal sequence of origin of parts of the chick wing and the role of the ectoderm. J Exp Zool 108, 363-404.
161. Saunders JW (1977) The experimental analysis of chick limb bud development. In Vertebrate Limb and Somite Morphogenesis. (eds Ede DA, Hinchliffe JR, Balls M). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-25.
162. Saunders JJ, Gasseling M (1968) Ectoderm-mesenchymal interaction in the origins of wing symmetry. In Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions (eds Fleischmajer R, Billingham R), pp. 289-314. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
163. Schrank AJ, Webb PW, Mayberry S (1999) How do body and paired-fin positions affect the ability of three teleost fishes to maneuver around bends? Can J Zool 77, 203-210.
164. Sedmera D, Misek I, Klima M (1997a) On the development of cetacean extremities. I. Hind limb rudimentation in the spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata). Eur J Morphol 35, 25-30.
165. Sedmera D, Misek I, Klima M (1997b) On the development of cetacean extremities. II. Morphogenesis and histogenesis of the flippers in the spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata). Eur J Morphol 35, 117-123.
166. Shapiro MD, Bell MA, Kingsley DM (2006) Parallel genetic origins of pelvic reduction in vertebrates. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, 13753-13758.
167. Shapiro MD, Marks ME, Peichel CL, et al. (2004) Genetic and developmental basis of evolutionary pelvic reduction in threespine sticklebacks. Nature 428, 717-723.
168. Shubin N (1995) The evolution of paired fins and the origin of tetrapod limbs phylogenetic and transformational approaches. Evol Biol 28, 39-86.
169. Sordino P, van der Hoeven F, Duboule D (1995) Hox gene expression in teleost fins and the origin of vertebrate digits. Nature 375, 678-681.
170. Standen EM (2008) Pelvic fin locomotor function in fishes: three-dimensional kinematics in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J Exp Biol 211, 2931-2942.
171. Stephens TD, McNulty TR (1981) Evidence for a metameric pattern in the development of the chick humerus. J Embryol Exp Morphol 61, 191-205.
172. Stiassny MLJ, Moore JA (1992) A review of the pelvic girdle of acanthomorph fishes, with comments on hypotheses of acanthomorph intrarelationships. Zool J Linnean Soc 104, 209-242.
173. Stopper GF, Wagner GP (2005) Of chicken wings and frog legs: A smorgasbord of evolutionary variation in mechanisms of tetrapod limb development. Dev Biol 288, 21-39.
174. Swartz B (2012) A marine stem-tetrapod from the Devonian of Western North America. PLoS One 7(3), e33683, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0033683.
175. Sweeney RM, Watterson RL (1969) Rib development in chick embryos analyzed by means of tantalum foil blocks. Am J Anat 126, 127-149.
176. Szeto DP, Rodriguez-Esteban Cn, Ryan AK, et al. (1999) Role of the Bicoid-related homeodomain factor Pitx1 in specifying hindlimb morphogenesis and pituitary development. Genes Dev 13, 484-494.
177. Tabin C, Laufer E (1993) Hox genes and serial homology. Nature 361, 692-693.
178. Takabatake Y, Takabatake T, Takeshima K (2000) Conserved and divergent expression of T-box genes Tbx2-Tbx5 in Xenopus. Mech Dev 91, 433-437.
179. Takeuchi JK, Koshiba-Takeuchi K, Matsumoto K, et al. (1999) Tbx5 and Tbx4 genes determine the wing/leg identity of limb buds. Nature 398, 810-814.
180. Takeuchi JK, Koshiba-Takeuchi K, Suzuki T, et al. (2003) Tbx5 and Tbx4 trigger limb initiation through activation of the Wnt/Fgf signaling cascade. Development 130, 2729-2739.
181. Tamura K, Yonei-Tamura S, Belmonte JCI (1999) Differential expression of Tbx4 and Tbx5 in zebrafish fin buds. Mech Dev 87, 181-184.
182. Tanaka M, Munsterberg A, Anderson WG, et al. (2002) Fin development in a cartilaginous fish and the origin of vertebrate limbs. Nature 416, 527-531.
183. Tanaka M, Hale LA, Amores A, et al. (2005) Developmental genetic basis for the evolution of pelvic fin loss in the pufferfish Takifugu rubripes. Dev Biol 281, 227-239.
184. Tchernov E, Rieppel O, Zaher H, et al. (2000) A fossil snake with limbs. Science 287, 2010-2012.
185. Thacher JK (1877) Median and paired fins, a contribution to the history of vertebrate limbs. Trans Conn Acad 3, 281-310.
186. Thewissen JGM, Cohn MJ, Stevens LS, et al. (2006) Developmental basis for hind-limb loss in dolphins and origin of the cetacean bodyplan. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 8414-8418.
187. Thorogood P, Ferretti P (1993) Hox genes, fin folds and symmetry. Nature 364, 196, (15 July 1993); doi:10.1038/364196a0.
188. Tschumi PA (1957) The growth of the hindlimb bud of Xenopus laevis and its dependence upon the epidermis. J Anat 91, 149-173.
189. Tyler JC (1980) Osteology, phylogeny, and higher classification of the fishes of the order Plectognathi (Tetraodontiformes). NOAA Tech Rep NMFS Circular 434, 1-422.
190. Vasyutina E, Birchmeier C (2006) The development of migrating muscle precursor cells. Anat Embryol 211, 37-41.
191. Vogel A, Rodriguez C, Izpisua-Belmonte J (1996) Involvement of FGF-8 in initiation, outgrowth and patterning of the vertebrate limb. Development 122, 1737-1750.
192. Vorobyeva EL (1991) The Fin-limb Transformation: Paleontological and Embryological Evidence. New York: Plenum Press.
193. Vorobyeva EI, Hinchliffe RJ (1995) The fin-limb transition and sarcopterygian relationships. Geobios 28(Suppl. 2), 289-292.
194. Wagner GP, Chiu C-H (2001) The tetrapod limb: a hypothesis on its origin. J Exp Zool 291, 226-240.
195. Wagner GP, Larsson HCE (2007) Fins and Limbs in the Study of Evolutionary Novelties. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
196. Walker WF, Homberger DG (1992) Vertebrate Dissection, 8th edn. Fort Worth: Saunders Publishing Company.
197. Webb PW (1982) Locomotor patterns in the evolution of actinopterygian fishes. Am Zool 22, 329-342.
198. Webb PW (1996) The Biology of Fish Swimming. New York: Cambridge University Press.
199. Winterbottom R (1974) A descriptive synonymy of the striated muscles of the Teleostei. Proc Acad Nat Sci Philadelphia 125, 225-317.
200. Yamanoue Y, Setiamarga DHE, Matsuura K (2010) Pelvic fins in teleosts: structure, function and evolution. J Fish Biol 77, 1173-1208.
201. Yokouchi Y, Sasaki H, Kuroiwa A (1991) Homeobox gene expression correlated with the bifurcation process of limb cartilage development. Nature 353, 443-445.
202. Yonei-Tamura S, Endo T, Yajima H, et al. (1999) FGF7 and FGF10 directly induce the apical ectodermal ridge in chick embryos. Dev Biol 211, 133-143.
203. Yonei-Tamura S, Abe G, Tanaka Y, et al. (2008) Competent stripes for diverse positions of limbs/fins in gnathostome embryos. Evol Dev 10, 737-745.
204. Young GC, Barwick RE, Campbell KSW (1989) Pelvic girdles of lungfishes (Dipnoi). In Pathways in Genology: Essays in Honour of Edwin Sherbon Hills (ed LeMaitre RW), pp. 59-75. Melbourne: Blackwell Scientific.
205. Zangerl R (1981) Handbook of Paleoichthyology, Chondrichthyans. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag.
206. Zhao X, Sirbu IO, Mic FA, et al. (2009) Retinoic acid promotes limb induction through effects on body axis extension but is unnecessary for limb patterning. Curr Biol 19, 1050-1057.
207. Zhu M, Yu X, Choo B, et al. (2012) An antiarch placoderm shows that pelvic girdles arose at the root of jawed vertebrates. Biol Lett 8, 453-456.