An update of the appraisal of the accuracy and utility of cervical discography in chronic neck pain

Pain Physician

Volumn 15, Issue 6, 2012, Pages

  Onyewu, Obi ^a,b   Manchikanti, Laxmaiah ^c,d   Falco, Frank J E ^a,b   Singh, Vijay ^e   Geffert, Stephanie ^a,b   Helm II, Standiford ^f   Cohen, Steven P ^g,h   Hirsch, Joshua A ⁱ  

^a Mid Atlantic Spine and Pain Physicians   (United States)

^b TEMPLE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c Pain Management Center 0f Paducah   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE   (United States)

^e Spine Pain Diagnostics Associates   (United States)

^f The Helm Center for Pain Management   (United States)

^g JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^h UNIFORMED SERVICES UNIVERSITY OF THE HEALTH SCIENCES   (United States)

ⁱ MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

Analgesic discography; Cervical discography; Cervical intervertebral disc; Chronic cervical pain; Diagnostic accuracy; False positives; Outcomes; Pain generator; Provocation discography; Sensitivity; Specificity

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BUPIVACAINE; CEFAZOLIN; LOCAL ANESTHETIC AGENT;

ANALGESIC ACTIVITY; BACTERIAL DISKITIS; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CERVICAL DISKOGRAPHY; CHONDROPATHY; CHRONIC NECK PAIN; CHRONIC PAIN; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DISKITIS; DISKOGRAPHY; DOSE TIME EFFECT RELATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; EPIDURAL ABSCESS; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FAINTNESS; FALSE POSITIVE RESULT; HUMAN; INTERVERTEBRAL DISK DISEASE; INTERVERTEBRAL DISKECTOMY; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MYELOGRAPHY; NECK PAIN; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PREVALENCE; QUALITY CONTROL; RELIABILITY; RETROPHARYNGEAL ABSCESS; REVIEW; SPINE FUSION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

ARTHROGRAPHY; CERVICAL VERTEBRAE; CHRONIC PAIN; HUMANS; INTERVERTEBRAL DISC; INTERVERTEBRAL DISC DEGENERATION; INTERVERTEBRAL DISC DISPLACEMENT; NECK PAIN;

EID: 84869844405     PISSN: 15333159     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (276)

1. Pizzo PA, Clark NM. Alleviating suffering 101-Pain relief in the United States. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:197-198.
2. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Datta S, Cohen SP, Hirsch JA; American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians. Comprehensive review of epidemiology, scope, and impact of spinal pain. Pain Physician 2009; 12:E35-E70.
3. Diwan SA, Manchikant L, Benyamin RM, Bryce DA, Geffert S, Hameed H, Sharma ML, Abdi S, Falco FJE. Effectiveness of cervical epidural injections in the management of chronic neck and upper extremity pain. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E405-E434.
4. Hogg-Johnson S, van der Velde G, Carroll LJ, Holm LW, Cassidy JD, Guzman J, Côté P, Haldeman S, Ammendolia C, Carragee E, Hurwitz E, Nordin M, Peloso P; Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. The burden and determinants of neck pain in the general population: Results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008; 33:S39-S51.
5. Côté P, Cassidy JD, Carroll L. The Saskatchewan Health and Back Pain Survey. The prevalence of neck pain and related disability in Saskatchewan adults. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1998; 23:1689-1698.
6. Côté P, Cassidy JD, Carroll LJ, Kristman V. The annual incidence and course of neck pain in the general population: A population-based cohort study. Pain 2004; 112:267-273.
7. Leboeuf-Yde C, Fejer R, Nielsen J, Kyvik KO, Hartvigsen J. Consequences of spinal pain: Do age and gender matter? A Danish cross-sectional populationbased study of 34,902 individuals 20-71 years of age. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2011; 12:39.
8. Schoenfeld AJ, George AA, Bader JO, Caram PM Jr. Incidence and epidemiology of cervical radiculopathy in the United States military: 2000 to 2009. J Spinal Disord Tech 2012; 25:17-22.
9. Hoy DG, Protani M, De R, Buchbinder R. The epidemiology of neck pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2010; 24:783-792.
10. Furlan AD, Yazdi F, Tsertsvadze A, Gross A, van Tulder m, Santaguida L, Gagnier J, Ammendolia C, Dryden T, Doucette S, Skidmore B, Daniel R, Ostermann T, Tsouros S. A systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy, cost-effectiveness, and safety of selected complementary and alternative medicine for neck and low-back pain. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2012; 2012:953139.
11. Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Boswell MV, Smith HS, Hirsch JA. Analysis of the growth of epidural injections and costs in the Medicare population: A comparative evaluation of 1997, 2002, and 2006 data. Pain Physician 2010; 13:199-212.
12. Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Singh V, Boswell MV, Smith HS, Hirsch JA. Explosive growth of facet joint interventions in the medicare population in the United States: A comparative evaluation of 1997, 2002, and 2006 data. BMC Health Serv Res 2010; 10:84.
13. Manchikanti L, Ailinani H, Koyyalagunta D, Datta S, Singh V, Eriator I, Sehgal N, Shah RV, Benyamin RM, Vallejo R, Fellows B, Christo PJ. A systematic review of randomized trials of long-term opioid management for chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician 2011; 14:91-121.
14. Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Falco FJE, Hirsch JA. Growth of spinal interventional pain management techniques: Analysis of utilization trends and Medicare expenditures 2000 to 2008. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012 July 7 [Epub ahead of print].
15. Manchikanti L, Pampati V, Hirsch JA. Analysis of utilization patterns of vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty in the Medicare population. J Neurointervent Surg 2012; Published Online July 7, 2012.
16. Abbott ZI, Nair KV, Allen RR, Akuthota VR. Utilization characteristics of spinal interventions. Spine J 2012; 1:35-43.
17. Manchikanti L, Vallejo R, Manchikanti KN, Benyamin RM, Datta S, Christo PJ. Effectiveness of long-term opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain. Pain Physician 2011; 14:E133-E156.
18. Manchikanti L, Helm II S, Fellows B, Janata JW, Pampati V, Grider JS, Boswell MV. Opioid epidemic in the United States. Pain Physician 2012; 15:ES9-ES38.
19. Manchikanti L, Fellows B, Ailinani H, Pampati V. Therapeutic use, abuse, and nonmedical use of opioids: A ten-year perspective. Pain Physician 2010; 13:401-435.
20. Manchikanti L, Abdi S, Atluri S, Balog CC, Benyamin RM, Boswell MV, Brown KR, Bruel BM, Bryce DA, Burks PA, Burton AW, Calodney AK, Caraway DL, Cash KA, Christo PJ, Damron KS, Datta S, Deer TR, Diwan S, Eriator I, Falco FJE, Fellows F, Geffert S, Gharibo CG, Glaser SE, Grider JS, Hameed H, Hameed M, Hansen H, Harned ME, Hayek SM, Helm II S, Hirsch JA, Janata JW, Kaye AD, Kaye AM, Kloth DS, Koyyalagunta D, Lee M, Malla Y, Manchikanti KN, McManus CD, Pampati V, Parr AT, Pasupuleti R, Patel VB, Sehgal N, Silverman SM, Singh V, Smith HS, Snook LT, Solanki DR, Tracy DH, Vallejo R, Wargo BW. American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) guidelines for responsible opioid prescribing in chronic non-cancer pain: Part 2-Guidance. Pain Physician 2012; 15:S67-S116.
21. Manchikanti L, Parr AT, Singh V, Fellows B. Ambulatory surgery centers and interventional techniques: A look at long-term survival. Pain Physician 2011; 14:E177-E215.
22. Specialty Utilization data files from CMS: www.cms.hhs.gov.
23. Patil PG, Turner DA, Pietrobon R. National trends in surgical procedures for degenerative cervical spine disease: 1990-2000. Neurosurgery 2005; 57:753-758.
24. Manchikanti L, Boswell MV, Singh V, Benyamin RM, Fellows B, Abdi S, Buenaventura RM, Conn A, Datta S, Derby R, Falco FJE, Erhart S, Diwan S, Hayek SM, Helm S, Parr AT, Schultz DM, Smith HS, Wolfer LR, Hirsch JA. Comprehensive evidence-based guidelines for interventional techniques in the management of chronic spinal pain. Pain Physician 2009; 12:699-802.
25. Chevrot A, Drapé JL, Godefroy D, Dupont AM. Imaging of the painful cervical spine. J Radiol 2003; 84:181-239.
26. Mink JH, Gordon RE, Deutsch AL. The cervical spine: Radiologist's perspective. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2003; 14:493-548.
27. Meyer RR. Cervical diskography. A help or hindrance in evaluating neck, shoulder, arm pain? Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1963; 90:1208-1215.
28. Sneider SE, Winslow OP Jr., Prylor TH. Cervical diskography: Is it relevant? JAMA 1963; 185:163-165.
29. Holt EP. Further reflections on cervical discography. JAMA 1975; 231:613-614.
30. Grubb SA, Kelly CK. Cervical discography: Clinical implications from 12 years experience. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2000; 25:1382-1389.
31. Bogduk N, Aprill C. On the nature of neck pain, discography and cervical zygapophysial joint blocks. Pain 1993; 54:213-217.
32. Yin W, Bogduk N. The nature of neck pain in a private pain clinic in the United States. Pain Med 2008; 9:196-203.
33. Shah RV, Everett CR, McKenzie-Brown AM, Sehgal N. Discography as a diagnostic test for spinal pain: A systematic and narrative review. Pain Physician 2005; 8:187-209.
34. Buenaventura RM, Shah RV, Patel V, Benyamin R, Singh V. Systematic review of discography as a diagnostic test for spinal pain: An update. Pain Physician 2007; 10:147-164.
35. Manchikanti L, Dunbar EE, Wargo BW, Shah RV, Derby R, Cohen SP. Systematic review of cervical discography as a diagnostic test for chronic spinal pain. Pain Physician 2009; 12:305-321.
36. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Malla Y. Fluoroscopic cervical epidural injections in chronic axial or disc-related neck pain without disc herniation, facet joint pain, or radiculitis. J Pain Res 2012; 227-236.
37. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Wargo BW, Malla Y. Cervical epidural injections in chronic discogenic neck pain without disc herniation or radiculitis: Preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Pain Physician 2010; 13:E265-E278.
38. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Wargo BW, Malla Y. The effectiveness of fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections in managing chronic cervical disc herniation and radiculitis: Preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Pain Physician 2010; 13:223-236.
39. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, Wargo BW, Malla Y. Management of chronic pain of cervical disc herniationa and radiculitis with fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections. Int J Med Sci 2012; 9:424-434.
40. Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V. Fluoroscopic epidural injections in cervical spinal stenosis: Preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind, active control trial. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E59-E70.
41. Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V. Fluoroscopic cervical interlaminar epidural injections in managing chronic pain of cervical postsurgery syndrome: Preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind active control trial. Pain Physician 2012; 15:13-26.
42. Zhang Y, An HS, Tannoury C, Thonar EJ, Freedman MK, Anderson DG. Biological treatment for degenerative disc disease: Implications for the field of physical medicine and rehabilitation. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2008; 87:694-702.
43. Mongini F, Evangelista A, Milani C, Ferrero L, Ciccone G, Ugolini A, Piedimonte A, Sigaudo M, Carlino E, Banzatti E, Galassi C. An educational and physical program to reduce headache, neck/ shoulder pain in a working community: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2012; 7:E29637.
44. Ackland HM, Wolfe R, Cameron PA, Cooper DJ, Malham GM, Varma DK, Fitt GJ, Rosenfeld JV, Liew SM. Health resource utilisation costs in acute patients with persistent midline cervical tenderness following road trauma. Injury 2012; 43:1908-1916.
45. Daffner RH. Radiologic evaluation of chronic neck pain. Am Fam Physician 2010; 82:959-964.
46. Bronfort G, Evans R, Anderson AV, Svendsen KH, Bracha Y, Grimm RH. Spinal manipulation, medication, or home exercise with advice for acute and subacute neck pain: A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2012; 156:1-10.
47. Evans R, Bronfort G, Schulz C, Maiers M, Bracha Y, Svendsen K, Grimm R, Garvey T, Transfeldt E. Supervised exercise with and without spinal manipulation performs similarly and better than home exercise for chronic neck pain: A randomized controlled trial. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012; 37:903-914.
48. Lotz JC, Ulrich JA. Innervation, inflammation, and hypermobility may characterize pathologic disc degeneration: Review of animal model data. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2006; 88:76-82.
49. Cloward RB. Cervical discography. Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockh) 1963; 1:675-688.
50. Cloward RB. Cervical diskography. A contribution to the etiology and mechanism of neck, shoulder and arm pain. Ann Surg 1959; 150:1052-1064.
51. Merskey H, Bogduk N. Cervical discogenic pain. In: Classification of Chronic Pain. Descriptions of Chronic Pain Syndromes and Definition of Pain Terms, 2nd ed. International Association for the Study of Pain. IASP Press, Seattle, 1994, p 108.
52. Bogduk N. Cervical disc stimulation (provocation discography). In: Practice Guidelines for Spinal Diagnostic and Treatment Procedures. ISIS, San Francisco, 2004, pp 95-111.
53. Falco FJE, Irwin L, Zhu J, Kim D, Onyewu CO. Cervical discography. In: Manchikanti L, Singh V (eds). Interventional Techniques in Chronic Spinal Pain. ASIPP Publishing, Paducah, KY, 2007, pp 567-580.
54. Singh V. The role of cervical discography in interventional pain management. Pain Physician 2004; 7:249-255.
55. Smith GW, Nichols P Jr. Technique for cervical discography. Radiology 1957; 68:718-720.
56. Smith GW. The normal cervical diskogram; with clinical observations. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1959; 81:1006-1010.
57. Fujimoto K, Miyagi M, Ishikawa T, Inoue G, Eguchi Y, Kamoda H, Arai G, Suzuki M, Orita S, Kubota G, Sakuma Y, Oikawa Y, Kuniyoshi K, Ochiai N, Kishida S, Nakamura J, Aoki Y, Toyone T, Takahashi K, Ohtori S. Sensory and autonomic innervation of the cervical intervertebral disk in rats: The pathomechanics of chronic discogenic neck pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2012; 37:1357-1362.
58. Ohtori S, Takahashi K, Chiba T, Yamagata M, Sameda H, Moriya H. Sensory innervation of the cervical facet joints in rats. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2001; 26:147-150.
59. Orita S, Eguchi Y, Kamoda H, Arai G, Ishikawa T, Miyagi M, Inoue G, Suzuki M, Toyone T, Aoki Y, Takahashi K, Ohtori S. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor inhibition at the punctured intervertebral disc downregulates the production of calcitonin gene-related peptide in dorsal root ganglia in rats. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:1737-1743.
60. Sugiura A, Ohtori S, Yamashita M, Yamauchi K, Inoue G, Suzuki M, Norimoto M, Orita S, Eguchi Y, Kuniyoshi K, Ochiai N, Kishida S, Takaso M, Aoki Y, Ishikawa T, Arai G, Miyagi M, Kamoda H, Nakamura J, Takahashi K. Effect of applying p75NTR saporin to a punctured intervertebral disc on calcitonin gene-related peptide expression in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons. J Orthop Sci 2010; 15:407-413.
61. Cloward RB. Cervical discography. Technique, indications and use in the diagnosis of ruptured cervical discs. AJR 1958; 79:563-574.
62. Bogduk N, Windsor M, Inglis A. The innervation of the cervical intervertebral discs. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1989; 13:2-8.
63. Mendel T, Wink CS, Zimny ML. Neural elements in human cervical intervertebral discs. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1992; 17:132-135.
64. Hurri H, Karppinen J. Discogenic pain. Pain 2004; 112:225-228.
65. Peng B, Hao J, Hou S, Wu W, Jiang D, Fu X, Yang Y. Possible pathogenesis of painful intervertebral disc degeneration. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2006; 31:560-566.
66. Peng B, Chen J, Kuang Z, Li D, Pang X, Zhang X. Expression and role of connective tissue growth factor in painful disc fibrosis and degeneration. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2009; 34:E178-E182.
67. Freemont AJ, Watkins A, Le Maitre C, Baird P, Jeziorska M, Knight MT, Ross ER, O'Brien JP, Hoyland JA. Nerve growth factor expression and innervation of the painful intervertebral disc. J Pathol 2002; 197:286-292.
68. Freemont AJ. The cellular pathobiology of the degenerate intervertebral disc and discogenic back pain. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009; 48:5-10.
69. Groen GJ, Baljet B, Drukker J. Nerves and nerve plexuses of the human vertebral column. Am J Anat 1990; 188:282-296.
70. Peng B, Wu W, Hou S, Li P, Zhang C, Yang Y. The pathogenesis of discogenic low back pain. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2005; 87:62-67.
71. Coppes MH, Marani E, Thomeer RT, Groen GJ. Innervation of "painful" lumbar discs. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1997; 22:2342-2349.
72. Freemont AJ, Peacock TE, Goupille P, Hoyland JA, O'Brien J, Jayson MI. Nerve ingrowth into diseased intervertebral disc in chronic back pain. Lancet 1997; 350:178-181.
73. Dongfeng R, Hou S, Wu W, Wang H, Shang W, Tang J, Li Z, Lei G. The expression of tumor necrosis factor-α and CD68 in high-intensity zone of lumbar intervertebral disc on magnetic resonance image in the patients with low back pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:E429-E433.
74. Wuertz K, Quero L, Sekiguchi M, Klawitter M, Nerlich A, Konno S, Kikuchi S, Boos N. The red wine polyphenol resveratrol shows promising potential for the treatment of nucleus pulposus-mediated pain in vitro and in vivo. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:E1373-E1384.
75. Hayes AJ, Smith SM, Gibson MA, Melrose J. Comparative immunolocalization of the elastin fiber-associated proteins fibrillin-1, LTBP-2, and MAGP-1 with components of the collagenous and proteoglycan matrix of the fetal human intervertebral disc. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:E1365-E1372.
76. Cuellar JM, Golish R, Reuter MW, Cuellar VG, Angst MS, Carragee EJ, Yeomans DC, Scuderi GJ. Cytokine evaluation in individuals with low back pain using discographic lavage. Spine J 2010; 10:212-218.
77. Kallewaard JW, Terheggen MA, Groen GJ, Sluijter ME, Derby R, Kapural L, Mekhail N, van Kleef M. Discogenic low back pain. Pain Pract 2010; 10:560-579.
78. Miyagi M, Ishikawa T, Orita S, Eguchi Y, Kamoda H, Arai G, Suzuki M, Inoue G, Aoki Y, Toyone T, Takahashi K, Ohtori S. Disk injury in rats produces persistent increases in pain-related neuropeptides in dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord glia but only transient increases in inflammatory mediators: Pathomechanism of chronic diskogenic low back pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2011; 36:2260-2266.
79. Kraychete DC, Sakata RK, Issy AM, Bacellar O, Santos-Jesus R, Carvalho EM. Serum cytokine levels in patients with chronic low back pain due to herniated disc: Analytical cross-sectional study. Sao Paulo Med J 2010; 128:259-262.
80. Tian W, Qi H. Association between intervertebral disc degeneration and disturbances of blood supply to the vertebrae. Chin Med J (Engl) 2010; 123:239-243.
81. David G, Ciurea AV, Iencean SM, Mohan A. Angiogenesis in the degeneration of the lumbar intervertebral disc. J Med Life 2010; 3:154-161.
82. Sharma A, Pilgram T, Wippold FJ 2nd. Association between annular tears and disk degeneration: A longitudinal study. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2009; 30:500-506.
83. Kim HG, Shin DA, Kim HI, Yoo EA, Shin DG, Lee JO. Clinical and radiological findings of discogenic low back pain confirmed by automated pressure-controlled discography. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2009; 46:333-339.
84. Thompson KJ, Dagher AP, Eckel TS, Clark M, Reinig JW. Modic changes on MR images as studied with provocative diskography: Clinical relevance--a retrospective study of 2,457 disks. Radiology 2009; 250:849-855.
85. Milette PC, Fontaine S, Lepanto L, Cardinal E, Breton G. Differentiating lumbar disc protrusions, disc bulges, and discs with normal contour but abnormal signal intensity. Magnetic resonance imaging with discographic correlations. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1999; 24:44-53.
86. Bogduk N. Lumbar discography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1996; 21:402-404.
87. Byun WM, Ahn SH, Ahn MW. Significance of perianular enhancement associated with anular tears on magnetic resonance imagings in diagnosis of radiculopathy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008; 33:2440-2443.
88. Averill S, McMahon SB, Clary DO, Reichardt LF, Priestley JV. Immunocytochemical localization of TrkA receptors in chemically identified subgroups of adult rat sensory neurons. Eur J Neurosci 1995; 7:1484-1494.
89. Perry MJ, Lawson SN, Robertson J. Neurofilament immunoreactivity in populations of rat primary afferent neurons: A quantitative study of phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated subunits. J Neurocytol 1991; 20:746-758.
90. Snider WD, McMahon SB. Tackling pain at the source: New ideas about nociceptors. Neuron 1998; 20:629-632.
91. Molliver DC, Radeke MJ, Feinstein SC, Snider WD. Presence or absence of TrkA protein distinguishes subsets of small sensory neurons with unique cytochemical characteristics and dorsal horn projections. J Comp Neurol 1995; 361:404-416.
92. Holt EP. Fallacy of cervical discography. Report of 50 cases in normal subjects. JAMA 1964; 188:799-801.
93. Klafta LA Jr., Collis JS Jr. An analysis of discography with surgical verification. J Neurosurg 1969; 30:38-41.
94. Klafta LA Jr., Collis JS Jr. The diagnostic inaccuracy of the pain response in cervical discography. Cleve Clin Q 1969; 36:35-39.
95. Simmons JW, Aprill CN, Dwyer AP, Brodsky AE. A reassessment of Holt's data. Clin Orthop 1988; 237:120-124.
96. Holt EP. The question of lumbar discography. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1968; 50:720-726.
97. Schellhas KP, Smith MD, Gundry CR, Pollei SR. Cervical discogenic pain. Prospective correlation of magnetic resonance imaging and discography in asymptomatic subjects and pain sufferers. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1996; 21:300-311.
98. Parfenchuck TA, Janssen ME. A correlation of cervical magnetic resonance imaging and discography/computed tomographic discograms. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1994; 19:2819-2825.
99. Oda J, Tanaka H, Tsuzuki N. Intervertebral disc changes with aging of human cervical vertebra. From the neonate to the eighties. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1988; 13:1205-1211.
100. Roth DA. Cervical analgesic discography. A new test for the definitive diagnosis of the painful disc syndrome. JAMA 1976; 235:1713-1714.
101. Kofoed H. Thoracic outlet syndrome. Clin Orthop Rel Res 1981; 156:145-148.
102. Riley LH Jr, Robinson RA, Johnson KA, Walker AE. The results of anterior interbody fusion of the cervical spine. Review of 93 consecutive cases. J Neurosurg 1969; 30:127-133.
103. Whitecloud TS 3rd, Seago RA. Cervical discogenic syndrome. Results of operative intervention in patients with positive discography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1987; 2:313-316.
104. Slipman CW, Plastaras C, Patel R, Isaac Z, Chow D, Garvan C, Pauza K, Furman M. Provocative cervical discography symptom mapping. Spine J 2005; 5:381-388.
105. Schellhas KP, Garvey TA, Johnson BA, Rothbart PJ, Pollei SR. Cervical diskography: Analysis of provoked responses at C2-C3, C3-C4, and C4-C5. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000; 21:269-275.
106. Cavanaugh JM, Lu Y, Chen C, Kallakuri S. Pain generation in lumbar and cervical facet joints. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2006; 88:63-67.
107. Windsor RE, Nagula D, Storm S. Electrical stimulation induced cervical medial branch referral patterns. Pain Physician 2003; 6:411-418.
108. Fukui S, Ohseto K, Shiotani M, Ohno K, Karasawa H, Naganuma Y, Yuda Y. Referred pain distribution of the cervical zygapophyseal joints and cervical dorsal rami. Pain 1996; 68:79-83.
109. Dwyer A, Aprill C, Bogduk N. Cervical zygapophyseal joint pain patterns. I: A study in normal volunteers. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1990; 15:453-457.
110. Cooper G, Bailey B, Bogduk N. Cervical zygapophysial joint pain maps. Pain Med (USA) 2007; 8:344-353.
111. Nordin M, Carragee EJ, Hogg-Johnson S, Weiner SS, Hurwitz EL, Peloso PM, Guzman J, van der Velde G, Carroll LJ, Holm LW, Côté P, Cassidy JD, Haldeman S; Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and its Associated Disorders. Assessment of neck pain and its associated disorders: Results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on neck pain and its associated disorders. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008; 33:S101-S122.
112. Lord SM, Barnsley L, Wallis BJ, Bogduk N. Chronic cervical zygapophysial joint pain with whiplash: A placebo-controlled prevalence study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1996; 21:1737-1745.
113. Manchukonda R, Manchikanti KN, Cash KA, Pampati V, Manchikanti L. Facet joint pain in chronic spinal pain: An evaluation of prevalence and false-positive rate of diagnostic blocks. J Spinal Disord Tech 2007; 20:539-545.
114. Manchikanti L, Boswell MV, Singh V, Pampati V, Damron KS, Beyer CD. Prevalence of facet joint pain in chronic spinal pain of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2004; 5:15.
115. Barnsley L, Lord SM, Wallis BJ, Bogduk N. The prevalence of chronic cervical zygapophyseal joint pain after whiplash. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1995; 20:20-26.
116. Falco FJE, Datta S, Manchikanti L, Sehgal N, Geffert S, Singh V, Smith HS, Boswell MV. An updated review of diagnostic utility of cervical facet joint injections. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E807-E838.
117. Smuck RM. Cervical discography. Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 1961; 86:975-982.
118. Zheng Y, Liew SM, Simmons ED. Value of magnetic resonance imaging and discography in determining the level of cervical discectomy and fusion. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2004; 29:2140-2145.
119. Sohn HM, You JW, Lee JY. The relationship between disc degeneration and morphologic changes in the intervertebral foramen of the cervical spine: A cadaveric MRI and CT study. J Korean Med Sci 2004; 19:101-106.
120. Ernst CW, Stadnik TW, Peeters E, Breucq C, Osteaux MJ. Prevalence of annular tears and disc herniations on MR images of the cervical spine in symptom free volunteers. Eur J Radiol 2005; 55:409-414.
121. Dai L. Disc degeneration and cervical instability. Correlation of magnetic resonance imaging with radiography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1998; 23:1734-1738.
122. Siebenrock KA, Aebi M. Cervical discography in discogenic pain syndrome and its predictive value for cervical fusion. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 1994; 113:199-203.
123. Motimaya A, Arici M, George D, Ramsby G. Diagnostic value of cervical discography in the management of cervical discogenic pain. Conn Med 2000; 64:395-398.
124. Rubinstein SM, Pool JJ, van Tulder MW, Riphagen II, de Vet HC. A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of provocative tests of the neck for diagnosing cervical radiculopathy. Eur Spine J 2007; 16:307-319.
125. Rubinstein SM, van Tulder M. A best-evidence review of diagnostic procedures for neck and low-back pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2008; 22:471-482.
126. Devereaux M. Neck pain. Med Clin North Am 2009; 93:273-284.
127. Song KJ, Choi BW, Kim GH, Kim JR. Clinical usefulness of CT-myelogram comparing with the MRI in degenerative cervical spinal disorders: Is CTM still useful for primary diagnostic tool? J Spinal Disord Tech 2009; 22:353-357.
128. de Koning C, van den Heuvel SP, Staal JB, Smits-Engelsman BC, Hendriks EJ. Clinimetric evaluation of active range of motion measures in patients with nonspecific neck pain: A systematic review. Eur Spine J 2008; 17:905-921.
129. Myburgh C, Larsen AH, Hartvigsen J. A systematic, critical review of manual palpation for identifying myofascial trigger points: Evidence and clinical significance. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008; 89:1169-1176.
130. Freedman MK, Overton EA, Saulino MF, Holding MY, Kornbluth ID. Interventions in chronic pain management. 2. Diagnosis of cervical and thoracic pain syndromes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008; 89:S41-S46.
131. Williams M, Williamson E, Gates S, Lamb S, Cooke M. A systematic literature review of physical prognostic factors for the development of Late Whiplash Syndrome. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2007; 32:E764-E780.
132. Holm LW, Carroll LJ, Cassidy JD, Hogg-Johnson S, Côté P, Guzman J, Peloso P, Nordin M, Hurwitz E, van der Velde G, Carragee E, Haldeman S; Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. The burden and determinants of neck pain in whiplash-associated disorders after traffic collisions: Results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008; 33:S52-S59.
133. Ohnmeiss DD, Guyer RD, Mason SL. The relation between cervical discographic pain responses and radiographic images. Clin J Pain 2000; 16:1-5.
134. Siebenrock KA, Aebi M. The value of diskography in disk-related pain syndrome of the cervical spine for evalua tion of indications for spondylodesis. Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb 1993; 131:220-224.
135. Viikari-Juntura E, Raininko R, Videman T, Porkka L. Evaluation of cervical disc degeneration with ultralow field MRI and discography. An experimental study on cadavers. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1989; 14:616-619.
136. Carroll LJ, Holm LW, Hogg-Johnson S, Côtè P, Cassidy JD, Haldeman S, Nordin M, Hurwitz EL, Carragee EJ, van der Velde G, Peloso PM, Guzman J. Course and prognostic factors for neck pain in whiplash-associated disorders (WAD): Results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2009; 32:S97-S107.
137. Carragee EJ, Hurwitz EL, Cheng I, Carroll LJ, Nordin M, Guzman J, Peloso P, Holm LW, Côté P, Hogg-Johnson S, van der Velde G, Cassidy JD, Haldeman S; Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. Treatment of neck pain: Injections and surgical interventions: Results of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010 Task Force on Neck Pain and Its Associated Disorders. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008; 33:S153-S169.
138. Aprill C, Bogduk N. The prevalence of cervical zygapophyseal joint pain. A first approximation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1992; 17:744-747.
139. Amevo B, Aprill C, Bogduk N. Abnormal instantaneous axes of rotation in patients with neck pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1992; 17:748-756.
140. Yasuma T, Saito S, Kihara K. Schmorl's nodes. Correlation of x-ray and histological findings in postmortem specimens. Acta Pathol Jpn 1988; 38:723-733.
141. Kikuchi S, Macnab I, Moreau P. Localisation of the level of symptomatic cervical disc degeneration. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1981; 63-B:272-277.
142. Cohen SP, Hurley RW. The ability of diagnostic spinal injections to predict surgical outcomes. Anesth Analg 2007; 105:1756-1775.
143. Osler GE. Cervical analgesic discography. A test for diagnosis of the painful disc syndrome. S Afr Med J 1987; 71:363.
144. Hamasaki T, Baba I, Tanaka S, Sumida T, Manabe H, Tanaka N, Ochi M. Clinical characterizations and radiologic findings of pure foraminal-type cervical disc herniation: CT discography as a useful adjuvant in its precise diagnosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2005; 30:E591-E596.
145. Lei D, Rege A, Koti M, Smith FW, Wardlaw D. Painful disc lesion: Can modern biplanar magnetic resonance imaging replace discography? J Spinal Disord Tech 2008; 21:430-435.
146. Falco FJE, Manchikanti L, Datta S, Wargo BW, Geffert S, Bryce DA, Atluri S, Singh V, Benyamin RM, Sehgal N, Ward S, Helm II S, Gupta S, Boswell MV. Systematic review of therapeutic effectiveness of cervical facet joint interventions: An update. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E839-E868.
147. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Falco FJE, Cash KA, Fellows B. Comparative outcomes of a 2-year follow-up of cervical medial branch blocks in management of chronic neck pain: A randomized, double-blind controlled trial. Pain Physician 2010; 13:437-450.
148. Metzger CS, Schlitt M, Quindlen EA, White RL. Small central cervical disc syndrome: Evaluation and treatment of chronic disabling neck pain. J Spinal Disord 1989; 2:234-237.
149. Shinomiya K, Komori H, Matsuoka T, Mutoh N, Furuya K. Neuroradiologic and electrophysiologic assessment of cervical spondylotic amyotrophy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1994; 19:21-25.
150. Wolfer L, Derby R, Lee JE, Lee SH. Systematic review of lumbar provocation discography in asymptomatic subjects with a meta-analysis of false-positive rates. Pain Physician 2008; 11:513-538.
151. Berg AO, Allan JD. Introducing the third U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Am J Prev Med 2001; 20:S3-S4.
152. West S, King V, Carey TS, Lohr KN, McKoy N, Sutton SF, Lux L. Systems to Rate the Strength of Scientific Evidence, Evidence Report, Technology Assessment No. 47. AHRQ Publication No. 02-E016. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health care Research and Quality, 2002. www. thecre.com/pdf/ahrq-system-strength. pdf
153. Whiting P, Rutjes A, Reitsma J, Bossuyt P, Kleijnen J. The Development of QUADAS: A tool for the quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy included in systematic reviews. BMC Med Res Methodol 2003; 3:25.
154. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Smith HS. One year results of a randomized, double-blind, active controlled trial of fluoroscopic caudal epidural injections with or without steroids in managing chronic discogenic low back pain without disc herniation or radiculitis. Pain Physician 2011; 14:25-36.
155. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Benyamin RM. A preliminary report of a randomized double-blind, active controlled trial of fluoroscopic thoracic interlaminar epidural injections in managing chronic thoracic pain. Pain Physician 2010; 13:E357-E369.
156. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Benyamin RM. Preliminary results of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial of fluoroscopic lumbar interlaminar epidural injections in managing chronic lumbar discogenic pain without disc herniation or radiculitis. Pain Physician 2010; 13:E279-E292.
157. Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, Pampati V, Benyamin R. Fluoroscopic lumbar interlaminar epidural injections in managing chronic lumbar axial or discogenic pain. J Pain Res 2012; 5:301-311.
158. Sampson M, Shojania KG, Garritty C, Horsley T, Ocampo M, Moher D. Systematic reviews can be produced and published faster. J Clin Epidemiol 2008; 61:531-536.
159. Lijmer JG, Mol BW, Heisterkamp S, Bonsel GJ, Prins MH, van der Meulen JH, Bossuyt PM. Empirical evidence of design-related bias in studies of diagnostic tests. JAMA 1999; 282:1061-1066.
160. Reid MC, Lachs MS, Feinstein AR. Use of methodological standards in diagnostic test research. Getting better but still not good. JAMA 1995; 274:645-651.
161. Manchikanti L, Derby R, Wolfer LR, Singh V, Datta S, Hirsch JA. Evidencebased medicine, systematic reviews, and guidelines in interventional pain management: Part 5. Diagnostic accuracy studies. Pain Physician 2009; 12:517-540.
162. Manchikanti L, Derby R, Wolfer LR, Singh V, Datta S, Hirsch JA. Evidencebased medicine, systematic reviews, and guidelines in interventional pain management: Part 7: Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of diagnostic accuracy studies. Pain Physician 2009; 12:929-963.
163. Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JP, Clarke M, Devereaux PJ, Kleijnen J, Moher D. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Ann Intern Med 2009; 151:W65-W94.
164. Whiting PF, Rutjes AW, Westwood ME, Mallett S, Deeks JJ, Reitsma JB, Leeflang MM, Sterne JA, Bossuyt PM; QUADAS-2 Group. QUADAS-2: A revised tool for the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. Ann Intern Med 2011; 155:529-536.
165. Merskey H, Bogduk N. Classification of Chronic Pain. Descriptions of Chronic Pain Syndromes and Definition of Pain Terms, 2nd ed. IASP Press, Seattle, 1994, pp 180-181.
166. Lucas N, Macaskill P, Irwig L, Moran R, Bogduk N. Reliability of physical examination for diagnosis of myofascial trigger points: A systematic review of the literature. Clin J Pain 2009; 25:80-89.
167. Lucas NP, Macaskill P, Irwig L, Bogduk N. The development of a quality appraisal tool for studies of diagnostic reliability (QAREL). J Clin Epidemiol 2010; 63:854-861.
168. Simopoulos TT, Manchikanti L, Singh V, Gupta S, Hameed H, Diwan S, Cohen SP. A systematic evaluation of prevalence and diagnostic accuracy of sacroiliac joint interventions. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E305-E344.
169. Falco FJE, Manchikanti L, Datta S, Sehgal N, Geffert S, Onyewu O, Singh V, Bryce DA, Benyamin RM, Simopoulos TT, Vallejo R, Gupta S, Ward SP, Hirsch JA. An update of systematic assessment of diagnostic accuracy of lumbar facet joint nerve blocks. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E869-E908.
170. Bossuyt PM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, Gatsonis CA, Glasziou PP, Irwig LM, Lijmer JG, Moher D, Rennie D, de Vet HC; Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy. Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: The STARD Initiative. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138:40-44.
171. Bossuyt PM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, Gatsonis CA, Glasziou PP, Irwig LM, Lijmer JG, Moher D, Rennie D, de Vet HC; Standards for Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy. Towards complete and accurate reporting of studies of diagnostic accuracy: The STARD initiative. Clin Chem 2003; 49:1-6.
172. Singh V, Manchikanti L, Onyewu O, Benyamin RM, Datta S, Geffert S, Parr AT, Falco FJE. An update of appraisal of accuracy of thoracic discography as a diagnostic test for chronic spinal pain. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E757-E775.
173. Chou R, Huffman L. Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Low Back Pain: Evidence Review. American Pain Society, Glenview, IL, 2009. www.ampainsoc. org/pub/pdf/LBPEvidRev.pdf
174. Atluri S, Singh V, Datta S, Geffert S, Sehgal N, Falco FJE. Diagnostic accuracy of thoracic facet joint nerve blocks: An update of the assessment of evidence. Pain Physician 2012; 15:E483-E496.
175. Manchikanti L, Benyamin RM, Singh V, Falco FJE, Hameed H, Derby R, Wolfer LR, Helm II S, Calodney AK, Datta S, Snook LT, Caraway DL, Hirsch JA, Cohen SP. An update of systematic appraisal of accuracy of utility of lumbar discography in chronic low back pain. Pain Physician 2012; In Press.
176. Derby R, Lee JE, Lee SH. Analgesic discography: Effect of adding a local anesthetic to routine lumbar provocation discography. Pain Med 2010; 11:1335-1342.
177. Dooley JF, McBroom RJ, Taguchi T, Macnab I. Nerve root infiltration in the diagnosis of radicular pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1988; 13:79-83.
178. Derby R, Baker R, Wolfer L, DePalma M. Analgesic discography: Can analgesic tesing identify a painful disc? SpineLine 2008; Nov/Dec:17-24.
179. Hollerwoger D. Methodological quality and outcomes of studies addressing manual cervical spine examinations: A review. Man Ther 2006; 11:93-98.
180. May S, Littlewook C, Bishop A. Reliability of procedures used in the physical examination of non-specific low back pain: A systematic review. Aust J Physiother 2006; 52:91-102.
181. Stochkendahl MJ, Christensen HW, Hartvigsen J, Vach W, Haas M, Hestbaek L, Adams A, Bronfort G. Manual examination of the spine: A systematic critical literature review of reproducibility. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2006; 29:475-485, 485. e1-10.
182. van Trijffel E, Anderegg Q, Bossuyt PM, Lucas C. Inter-examiner reliability of passive assessment of intervertebral motion in the cervical and lumbar spine: A systematic review. Man Ther 2005; 10:256-269.
183. van Tulder M, Furlan A, Bombardier C, Bouter L; Editorial Board of the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. Updated method guidelines for systematic reviews in the Cochrane Collaboration Back Review Group. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2003; 28:1290-1299.
184. Staal JB, de Bie R, de Vet HC, Hildebrandt J, Nelemans P. Injection therapy for subacute and chronic low-back pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 3:CD001824.
185. Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, Lohr KN, Mulrow CD, Teutsch SM, Atkins D; Methods Work Group, Third US Preventive Services Task Force. Current methods of the US Preventive Services Task Force. Am J Prevent Med 2001; 20:21-35.
186. Chou R, Huffman L. Use of Chronic Opioid Therapy in Chronic Noncancer Pain: Evidence Review. American Pain Society; Glenview, IL, 2009. www.ampainsoc.org/library/pdf/Opioid_ Final_Evidence_Report.pdf
187. Menkowitz M, Stieber JR, Wenokor C, Cohen JD, Donald GD, Cresanti-Dakinis C. Intradiscal pressure monitoring in the cervical spine. Pain Physician 2005; 8:163-166.
188. Finn JE. Diagnostic value of cervical discography. Conn Med 2000; 64:645.
189. Gomez-Castresana FB, Vazquez Herrero C, Baltes Horche JL. Cervical chemonucleolysis. Orthopedics 1995; 18:237-242.
190. Schellhas KP, Pollei SR. The role of discography in the evaluation of patients with spinal deformity. Orthop Clin North Am 1994; 25:265-273.
191. Simmons EH, Segil CM. An evaluation of discography in the localization of symptomatic levels in discogenic disease of the spine. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1975; 108:57-69.
192. Shinomiya K, Nakako K, Mochida K, Furuya K. Evaluation of cervical diskography in pain origin and provocation. J Spinal Disord 1993; 6:422-426.
193. Chirls M. Discography, myelography, and interbody fusions for cervical syndromes. J Med Soc N J 1970; 67:530-532.
194. Slipman CW, Plastaras CT, Palmitier RA, Huston CW, Sterenfeld EB. Symptom provocation of fluoroscopically guided cervical nerve root stimulation. Are dynatomal maps identical to dermatomal maps? Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1998; 23:2235-2242.
195. Colhoun E, McCall IW, Williams L, Cassar Pullicino VN. Provocation discography as a guide to planning operations on the spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1988; 70:267-271.
196. Palit M, Schofferman J, Goldthwaite N, Reynolds J, Kerner M, Keaney D, Lawrence-Miyasaki L. Anterior discectomy and fusion for the management of neck pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1999; 24:2224-2228.
197. Hubach PC. A prospective study of anterior cervical spondylodesis in intervertebral disc disorders. Eur Spine J 1994; 3:209-213.
198. Simmons EH, Bhalla SK, Butt WP. Anterior cervical discectomy and fusion: A clinical and biomechanical study with eight year follow up with a note on discography technique and interpretation of results. J Bone Joint Surg 1969; 51B:225-237.
199. Connor PM, Darden BV II. Cervical discography complications and clinical efficacy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1993; 18:2035-2038.
200. Williams JL, Allen MB, Harkess JW. Late results of cervical discectomy and interbody fusion: Some factors influencing the results. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1968; 50:277-286.
201. Barnsley L, Lord SM, Wallis BJ, Bogduk N. False-positive rates of cervical zygapophysial joint blocks. Clin J Pain 1993; 9:124-130.
202. Schaerer JP. Anterior cervical disc removal and fusion. Schweiz Arch Neurol Neurochir Psychiatr 1968; 102:331-344.
203. Guyer RD, Collier R, Stith WJ, Ohnmeiss DD, Hochschuler SH, Rashbaum RF, Regan JJ. Discitis after discography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1988; 13:1352-1354.
204. Osti OL, Fraser RD, Vernon-Roberts B. Discitis after discography. The role of prophylactic antibiotics. J Bone Joint Surg 1990; 72B:271-274.
205. Laun A, Lorenz R, Agnoli AL. Complications of cervical discography. J Neurosurg Sci 1981; 25:17-20.
206. Lownie SP, Ferguson GG. Spinal subdural empyema complicating cervical discography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1989; 14:1415-1417.
207. Guyer RD, Ohnmeiss DD, Mason SL, Shelokov AP. Complications of cervical discography: Findings in a larger series. J Spinal Disord 1997; 10:95-101.
208. Zeidman SM, Thompson K, Ducker TB. Complications of cervical discography: Analysis of 4,400 diagnostic disc injections. Neurosurgery 1995; 37:414-417.
209. Szypryt E, Hardy J, Hinton C, Worthington BS, Mulholland RC. A comparison between magnetic resonance imaging and scintigraphic bone imaging in the diagnosis of disc space infection in an animal model. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1988; 13:1042-1048.
210. Arrington JA, Murtagh FR, Silbiger ML, Rechtine GR, Nokes SR. Magnetic resonance imaging of post discogram discitis and osteomyelitis in the lumbar spine: Case report. J Fla Med Assoc 1986; 73:192-194.
211. Smith MD, Kim SS. A herniated cervical disc resulting from discography: An unusual complication. J Spinal Disord 1990; 3:392-394; discussion 395.
212. Iatridis JC, Hecht AC. Commentary: Does needle injection cause disc degeneration? News in the continuing debate regarding pathophysiology associated with intradiscal injections. Spine J 2012; 12:336-338.
213. Gruber HE, Rhyne AL, Hansen KJ, Phillips RC, Hoelscher GL, Ingram JA, Norton HJ, Hanley EN Jr. Deleterious effects of discography radiocontrast solution on human annulus cell in vitro: Changes in cell viability, proliferation, and apoptosis in exposed cells. Spine J 2012; 12:329-335.
214. Kapoor R, Liu J, Devasenapathy A, Gordin V. Gadolinium encephalopathy after intrathecal gadolinium injection. Pain Physician 2010; 13:E321-E326.
215. Gangi A, Tsoumakidou G, Buy X, Cabral JF, Garnon J. Percutaneous techniques for cervical pain of discal origin. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol 2011; 15:172-180.
216. Kim CH, Issa MA, Vaglienti RM. Flushing following interlaminar lumbar epidural steroid injection with dexamethasone. Pain Physician 2010; 13:481-484.
217. Lima RM, Navarro LH, Carness JM, Barros GA, Marques ME, Solanki D, Ganem EM. Clinical and histological effects of the intrathecal administration of methylprednisolone in dogs. Pain Physician 2010; 13:493-501.
218. Moon JH, Kuh SU, Park HS, Kim KH, Park JY, Chin DK, Kim KS, Cho YE. Triamcinolone decreases bupivacaine toxicity to intervertebral disc cell in vitro. Spine J 2012; 12:665-673.
219. Yanagidate F, Strichartz GR. Bupivacaine inhibits activation of neuronal spinal extracellular receptor-activated kinase through selective effects on ionotropic receptors. Anesthesiology 2006; 104:805-814.
220. Beloeil H, Ababneh Z, Chung R, Zurakowski D, Mulkern RV, Berde CB. Effects of bupivacaine and tetrodotoxin on carrageenan-induced hind paw inflammation in rats (Part 1): Hyperalgesia, edema, and systemic cytokines. Anesthesiology 2006;105:128-138.
221. De Iuliis A, Zanatta L, Vincenti E, Galzigna L. Differences of ropivacaine and bupivacaine relevant to antiinflammatory activity, platelet aggregation and antioxidant activity in vitro. Farmaco 2001; 56:153-157.
222. Lahav M, Levite M, Bassani L, Lang A, Fidder H, Tal R, Bar-Meir S, Mayer L, Chowers Y. Lidocaine inhibits secretion of IL-8 and IL-1beta and stimulates secretion of IL-1 receptor antagonist by epithelial cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 127:226-233.
223. Chu CR, Izzo NJ, Papas NE, Fu FH. In vitro exposure to 0.5% bupivacaine is cytotoxic to bovine articular chondrocytes. Arthroscopy 2006; 22:693-699.
224. Chu CR, Izzo NJ, Coyle CH, Papas NE, Logar A. The in vitro effects of bupivacaine on articular chondrocytes. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2008; 90:814-820.
225. Grishko V, Xu M, Wilson G, Pearsall AW 4th. Apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction in human chondrocytes following exposure to lidocaine, bupivacaine, and ropivacaine. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2010; 92:609-618.
226. Piper SL, Kim HT. Comparison of ropivacaine and bupivacaine toxicity in human articular chondrocytes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2008; 90:986-991.
227. Lee H, Sowa G, Vo N, Vadala G, O'Connell S, Studer R, Kang J. Effect of bupivacaine on intervertebral disc cell viability. Spine J 2010; 10:159-166.
228. Quero L, Klawitter M, Nerlich AG, Leonardi M, Boos N, Wuertz K. Bupivacaine-the deadly friend of intervertebral disc cells? Spine J 2011; 11:46-53.
229. Wang D, Vo NV, Sowa GA, Hartman RA, Ngo K, Choe SR, Witt WT, Dong Q, Lee JY, Niedernhofer LJ, Kang JD. Bupivacaine decreases cell viability and matrix protein synthesis in an intervertebral disc organ model system. Spine J 2011; 11:139-146.
230. Seshadri V, Coyle CH, Chu CR. Lidocaine potentiates the chondrotoxicity of methylprednisolone. Arthroscopy 2009; 25:337-347.
231. Syed HM, Green L, Bianski B, Jobe CM, Wongworawat MD. Bupivacaine and triamcinolone may be toxic to human chondrocytes: A pilot study. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2011; 469:2941-2947.
232. Manchikanti L, Cash K, Moss T, Rivera JJ, Pampati V. Risk of whole body radiation exposure and protective measures in fluoroscopically guided interventional techniques: A prospective evaluation. BMC Anesthesiol 2003; 3:2.
233. Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Wargo BW, Fellows B. Infection control practices (safe injection and medication vial utilization) for interventional techniques: Are they based on relative risk management or evidence? Pain Physician 2011; 14:425-434.
234. Manchikanti L, Malla Y, Wargo BW, Cash KA, McManus CD, Damron KS, Jackson SD, Pampati V, Fellows B. A prospective evaluation of bleeding risk of interventional techniques in chronic pain. Pain Physician 2011; 14:317-329.
235. Deyo RA, Nachemson A, Mirza SK. Spinal-fusion surgery-The case for restraint. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:722-726.
236. Jacobs WC, Anderson PG, Limbeek J, Willems PC, Pavlov P. Single or double-level anterior interbody fusion techniques for cervical degenerative disc disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;18:CD004958.
237. Zampolini M, Bernardinello M, Tesio L. RTW in back conditions. Disabil Rehabil 2007; 29:1377-1385.
238. Heiskari M. Comparative retrospective study of patients operated for cervical disc herniation and spondylosis. Ann Clin Res 1986; 18:57-63.
239. Martins AN. Anterior cervical discectomy with and without interbody bone graft. J Neurosurg 1976; 44:290-295.
240. Esperson JO, Buhl M, Eriksen EF, Fode K, Klaerke A, Krøyer L, Lindeberg H, Madsen CB, Strange P, Wohlert L. Treatment of cervical disc disease using Cloward's technique: General results, effect of different operative methods and complications in 1,106 patients. Acta Neurochirurg 1984; 70:97-114.
241. Hirsh LF. Cervical degenerative arthritis: Possible cause of neck and arm pain. Postgrad Med 1983; 74:123-130.
242. Lejeune JP, Hladky JP, Cotten A, Vinchon M, Christiaens JL. Foraminal lumbar disc herniation. Experience with 83 patients. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1994; 19:1905-1908.
243. Vanharanta H, Guyer RD, Ohnmeiss DD, Stith WJ, Sachs BL, Aprill C, Spivey M, Rashbaum RF, Hochschuler SH, Videman T, Selby DK, Terry A, Mooney V. Disc deterioration in low back syndromes. A prospective, multi-center CT/ discography study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1988; 13:1349-1351.
244. Vanharanta H, Sachs BL, Ohnmeiss DD, Aprill C, Spivey M, Guyer RD, Rashbaum RF, Hochschuler SH, Stith WJ, Mooney V. Pain provocation and disc deterioration by age. A CT/discography study in a low-back pain population. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1989; 14:420-423.
245. Moneta GB, Videman T, Kaivanto K, Aprill C, Spivey M, Vanharanta H, Sachs BL, Guyer RD, Hochschuler SH, Raschbaum RF, Mooney V. Reported pain during lumbar discography as a function of anular ruptures and disc degeneration. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1994; 19:1968-1974.
246. Maezawa S, Muro T. Pain provocation at lumbar discography as analyzed by computed tomography/discography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1992; 17:1309-1315.
247. Cohen SP, Larkin TM, Barna SA, Palmer WE, Hecht AC, Stojanovic MP. Lumbar discography: A comprehensive review of outcome studies, diagnostic accuracy, and principles. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2005; 30:163-183.
248. Cohen SP, Larkin TM. Lumbar discography. In: Benzon HT, Rathmell JP, Wu CL, Turk DC, Argoff CE (eds). Raj's Practical Management of Pain. 4th ed. Elsevier Science, Philadelphia 2008, pp 1079-1108.
249. Deeks JJ. Systematic reviews in health care: Systematic reviews of evaluations of diagnostic and screening tests. BMJ 2001; 323:157-162.
250. Knottnerus JA, van Weel C, Muris JW. Evaluation of diagnostic procedures. BMJ 2002; 324:477-480.
251. Saal JS. General principles of diagnostic testing as related to painful lumbar spine disorders. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2002; 27:2538-2545.
252. Carragee EJ, Chen Y, Tanner CM, Hayward C, Rossi M, Hagle C. Can discography cause long-term back symptoms in previously asymptomatic subjects? Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2000; 25:1803-1808.
253. Carragee EJ, Barcohana B, Alamin T, van den Haak E. Prospective controlled study of the development of lower back pain in previously asymptomatic subjects undergoing experimental discography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2004; 29:1112-1117.
254. Derby R. Lumbar discometry. Newsletter of International Spine Injection Society 1993; 1:8-17.
255. Shin D, Kim H, Jung J, Sin D, Lee J. Diagnostic relevance of pressure-controlled discography. J Korean Med Sci 2006; 21:911-916.
256. Manchikanti L, Singh V, Pampati VS, Fellows B, Beyer C, Damron K, Cash KA. Provocative discography in low back pain patients with or without somatization disorder: A randomized prospective evaluation. Pain Physician 2001; 4:227-239.
257. Cohen SP, Oberfell R, Larkin T, Fant, G, Stojanovic M. Does needle insertion site affect discography results? A retrospective analysis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2002; 27:2279-2283.
258. Derby R, Lee SH, Kim BJ, Chen Y, Aprill C, Bogduk N. Pressure-controlled lumbar discography in volunteers without low back symptoms. Pain Med 2005; 6:213-221.
259. Derby R, Howard MW, Grant JM, Lettice JJ, Van Peteghem PK, Ryan DP. The ability of pressure-controlled discography to predict surgical and nonsurgical outcomes. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1999; 24:364-371.
260. Smith HS, Chopra P, Patel VB, Frey ME, Rastogi R. Systematic review on the role of sedation in diagnostic spinal interventional techniques. Pain Physician 2009; 12:195-206.
261. von Gaza W. Die Resektion der paravertebralen Nerven und die isolierte Durchschneidung des Ramus communicans. Arch Klin Chir 1924; 133:479.
262. Steindler A, Luck JV. Differential diagnosis of pain in the low back: Allocation of the source of the pain by the procaine hydrochloride method. JAMA 1938; 110:106-113.
263. Bogduk N, McGuirk B. Treatment strategies. In: Medical Management of Acute and Chronic Low Back Pain. An Evidencebased Approach Pain Research and Clinical Management. Vol 13. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 2002, pp 177-186.
264. Crock HV. A reappraisal of intervertebral disc lesions. Med J Aust 1970; 1:983-989.
265. Wassertheil-Smoller S. Mostly about screening. In: Wassertheil-Smoller S (ed). Biostatistics and Epidemiology A Primer for Health and Biomedical Professionals. Springer-Verlag, New York, 2004, pp 129-140.
266. Weinstein S, Obuchowski NA, Lieber ML. Clinical evaluation of diagnostic tests. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2005; 184:14-19.
267. Riegelman RK. Testing a test (Section II). In: Riegelmann RK (ed). Studying a Study and Testing a Test: How to Read the Medical Evidence. 5th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005, pp 137-192.
268. Melzack R. From the gate to the neuromatrix. Pain 1999; 6:S121-S126.
269. Devor M. Unexplained peculiarities of the dorsal root ganglion. Pain 1999; 6:S27-S35.
270. Carragee EJ, Alamin TF, Miller J, Grafe M. Provocative discography in volunteer subjects with mild persistent low back pain. Spine J 2002; 2:25-34.
271. Woolf CJ, American College of Physicians, American Physiological Society. Pain: Moving from symptom control toward mechanism-specific pharmacologic management. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140:441-451.
272. Wilder-Smith CH, Schindler D, Lovblad K, Redmond SM, Nirkko A. Brain func tional magnetic resonance imaging of rectal pain and activation of endogenous inhibitory mechanisms in irritable bowel syndrome patient subgroups and healthy controls. Gut 2004; 53:1595-1601.
273. Giesecke T, Gracely RH, Grant MA, Nachemson A, Petzke F, Williams DA, Clauw DJ. Evidence of augmented central pain processing in idiopathic chronic low back pain. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50:613-623.
274. Hansson PT, Dickenson AH. Pharmacological treatment of peripheral neuropathic pain conditions based on shared commonalities despite multiple etiologies. Pain 2005; 113:251-254.
275. Hansson P. Difficulties in stratifying neuropathic pain by mechanisms. Eur J Pain 2003; 7:353-357.
276. Vogelsang H. Discitis intervertebralis cervicalis nack diskographie. Neurochirurgia 1973; 16:80-83.