Correction to Models of Verbal Working Memory Capacity: What Does It Take to Make Them Work? [Psychological Review, (2012)] DOI:10.1037/a0027791;Models of verbal working memory capacity: What does it take to make them work?

Psychological Review

Volumn 119, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 480-499

  Cowan, Nelson ^a   Rouder, Jeffrey N ^a   Blume, Christopher L ^a   Scott Saults, J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

Capacity models; List item recognition; Mathematical models; Working memory; Working memory capacity

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; ATTENTION; BAYES THEOREM; FEMALE; HUMAN; LEARNING; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PHOTOSTIMULATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; RECOGNITION; SHORT TERM MEMORY; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; STATISTICS;

ADOLESCENT; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ASSOCIATION LEARNING; ATTENTION; BAYES THEOREM; CUES; DATA INTERPRETATION, STATISTICAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY, SHORT-TERM; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PHOTIC STIMULATION; RECOGNITION (PSYCHOLOGY); YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84867383190     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0029175     Document Type: Erratum

References (105)

1. Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19, 716-723. doi:10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705
2. Anderson, D. E., Vogel, E. K., & Awh, E. (2011). Precision in visual working memory reaches a stable plateau when individual item limits are exceeded. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 1128-1138. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4125-10.2011
3. Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
4. Anderson, J. R. (2007). How can the human mind occur in the physical universe? Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195324259.001.0001
5. Awh, E., Barton, B., & Vogel, E. K. (2007). Visual working memory represents a fixed number of items regardless of complexity. Psycho-logical Science, 18, 622-628. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01949.x
6. Baddeley, A. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.
7. Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 417-423. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2
8. Baddeley, A. (2001). The magic number and the episodic buffer. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 117-118. doi:10.1017/S0140525X01253928
9. Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (pp. 47-89). New York, NY: Academic Press.
10. Baddeley, A. D., & Logie, R. H. (1999). Working memory: The multiple-component model. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 28-61). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
11. Baddeley, A. D., Thomson, N., & Buchanan, M. (1975). Word length and the structure of short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 575-589. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(75)80045-4
12. Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., Portrat, S., Vergauwe, E., & Camos, V. (2007). Time and cognitive load in working memory. Journal of Exper-imental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 570-585. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.3.570
13. Barrouillet, P., Portrat, S., & Camos, V. (2011). On the law relating processing to storage in working memory. Psychological Review, 118, 175-192. doi:10.1037/a0022324
14. Bays, P. M., & Husain, M. (2008, August 8). Dynamic shifts of limited working memory resources in human vision. Science, 321, 851-854. doi:10.1126/science.1158023
15. Bays, P. M., & Husain, M. (2009, February 13). Response to comment on "Dynamic Shifts of Limited Working Memory Resources in Human Vision." Science, 323, 877. doi:10.1126/science.1166794
16. Berger, J. O., & Berry, D. A. (1988). Statistical analysis and the illusion of objectivity. American Scientist, 76, 159-165.
17. Borst, J. P., Taatgen, N. A., & van Rijn, H. (2010). The problem state: A cognitive bottleneck in multitasking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 363-382. doi:10.1037/a0018106
18. Broadbent, D. (1975). The magic number seven after fifteen years. In A. Kennedy & A. Wilkes (Eds.), Studies in long term memory (pp. 3-18). Oxford, England: Wiley.
19. Brown, G. D. A., Neath, I., & Chater, N. (2007). A temporal ratio model of memory. Psychological Review, 114, 539-576. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.3.539
20. Camos, V., Mora, G., & Oberauer, K. (2011). Adaptive choice between articulatory rehearsal and attentional refreshing in verbal working memory. Memory & Cognition, 39, 231-244. doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0011-x
21. Chen, Z., & Cowan, N. (2005). Chunk limits and length limits in imme-diate recall: A reconciliation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 1235-1249. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.6.1235
22. Chen, Z., & Cowan, N. (2009a). Core verbal working-memory capacity: The limit in words retained without covert articulation. Quarterly Jour-nal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1420-1429. doi:10.1080/17470210802453977
23. Chen, Z., & Cowan, N. (2009b). How verbal memory loads consume attention. Memory & Cognition, 37, 829-836. doi:10.3758/MC.37.6.829
24. Chong, S. C., & Treisman, A. (2005). Statistical processing: Computing the average size in perceptual groups. Vision Research, 45, 891-900. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2004.10.004
25. Clark, S., & Gronlund, S. (1996). Global matching models of recognition memory: How the models match the data. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3, 37-60. doi:10.3758/BF03210740
26. Cowan, N. (1988). Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information-processing system. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 163-191. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.163
27. Cowan, N. (1999). An embedded-processes model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. 62-101). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
28. Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sci-ences, 24, 87-114. doi:10.1017/S0140525X01003922
29. Cowan, N. (2005). Working memory capacity. New York, NY: Psychology Press. doi:10.4324/9780203342398
30. Cowan, N., AuBuchon, A. M., Gilchrist, A. L., Ricker, T. J., & Saults, J. S. (2011). Age differences in visual working memory capacity: Not based on encoding limitations. Developmental Science, 14, 1066-1074. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01060.x
31. Cowan, N., Chen, Z., & Rouder, J. N. (2004). Constant capacity in an immediate serial-recall task: A logical sequel to Miller (1956). Psychological Science, 15, 634-640. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00732.x
32. Cowan, N., Elliott, E. M., Saults, J. S., Morey, C. C., Mattox, S., Hism-jatullina, A., & Conway, A. R. A. (2005). On the capacity of attention: Its estimation and its role in working memory and cognitive aptitudes. Cognitive Psychology, 51, 42-100. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.12.001
33. Cowan, N., Li, D., Moffitt, A., Becker, T. M., Martin, E. A., Saults, J. S., & Crist, S. E. (2011). A neural region of abstract working memory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 2852-2863. doi:10.1162/jocn.2011.21625
34. Cowan, N., & Morey, C. C. (2007). How can dual-task working memory retention limits be investigated? Psychological Science, 18, 686-688. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01960.x
35. Cowan, N., & Rouder, J. N. (2009, February 13). Comment on "Dynamic Shifts of Limited Working Memory Resources in Human Vision." Science, 323, 877. doi:10.1126/science.1166478
36. Daily, L. Z., Lovett, M. C., & Reder, L. M. (2001). Modeling individual differences in working memory performance: A source activation ac-count. Cognitive Science, 25, 315-353.
37. Davelaar, E. J., Goshen-Gottstein, Y., Ashkenazi, A., Haarmann, H. J., & Usher, M. (2005). The demise of short-term memory revisited: Empir-ical and computational investigations of recency effects. Psychological Review, 112, 3-42. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.112.1.3
38. Dyne, A. M., Humphreys, M. S., Bain, J. D., & Pike, R. (1990). Associa-tive interference effects in recognition and recall. Journal of Experimen-tal Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 813-824. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.16.5.813
39. Edwards, W., Lindman, H., & Savage, L. J. (1963). Bayesian statistical inference for psychological research. Psychological Review, 70, 193-242. doi:10.1037/h0044139
40. Eich, J. (1982). A composite holographic associative recall model. Psy-chological Review, 89, 627-661. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.89.6.627
41. Gilchrist, A. L., & Cowan, N. (2011). Can the focus of attention accom-modate multiple separate items? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 1484-1502. doi:10.1037/a0024352
42. Gilchrist, A. L., Cowan, N., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2008). Working memory capacity for spoken sentences decreases with adult ageing: Recall of fewer but not smaller chunks in older adults. Memory, 16, 773-787. doi:10.1080/09658210802261124
43. Gilchrist, A. L., Cowan, N., & Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2009). Investigating the childhood development of working memory using sentences: New evidence for the growth of chunk capacity. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 104, 252-265. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2009.05.006
44. Gillund, G., & Shiffrin, R. (1984). A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. Psychological Review, 91, 1-67. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.1.1
45. Glanzer, M., & Razel, M. (1974). The size of the unit in short-term storage. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 114-131. doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80036-8
46. Gorgoraptis, N., Catalao, R., Bays, P., & Husain, M. (2011). Dynamic updating of working memory resources for visual objects. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 8502-8511. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0208-11.2011
47. Healy, A. F., Fendrich, D. W., Cunningham, T. F., & Till, R. E. (1987). Effects of cuing on short-term retention of order information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 413-425. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.3.413
48. Hintzman, D. L. (1988). Judgments of frequency and recognition memory in a multiple-trace model. Psychological Review, 95, 528-551. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.95.4.528
49. Hulme, C., & Tordoff, V. (1989). Working memory development: The effects of speech rate, word length, and acoustic similarity on serial recall. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 47, 72-87. doi: 10.1016/0022-0965(89)90063-5
50. Jacoby, L. L. (1991). A process dissociation framework: Separating auto-matic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Lan-guage, 30, 513-541. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(91)90025-F
51. Jeffreys, H. (1961). Theory of probability (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
52. Jiang, Y., Chun, M. M., & Olson, I. R. (2004). Perceptual grouping in change detection. Perception & Psychophysics, 66, 446-453. doi: 10.3758/BF03194892
53. Johnson, N. F. (1978). The memorial structure of organized sequences. Memory & Cognition, 6, 233-239. doi:10.3758/BF03197451
54. Jones, G. V. (1976). A fragmentation hypothesis of memory: Cued recall of pictures and of sequential position. Journal of Experimental Psychol-ogy: General, 105, 277-293. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.105.3.277
55. Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehen-sion: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological Review, 99, 122-149. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.99.1.122
56. Lewandowsky, S., & Farrell, S. (2011). Computational modeling in cog-nition: Principles and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
57. Lewandowsky, S., & Oberauer, K. (2009). No evidence for temporal decay in working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1545-1551. doi:10.1037/a0017010
58. Lewandowsky, S., Oberauer, K., & Brown, G. D. A. (2009). Response to Barrouillet and Camos: Interference or decay in working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 146-147. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.003
59. Liang, F., Paulo, R., Molina, G., Clyde, M. A., & Berger, J. O. (2008). Mixtures of g priors for Bayesian variable selection. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 103, 410-423. doi:10.1198/016214507000001337
60. Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997, November 20). The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions. Nature, 390, 279-281. doi:10.1038/36846
61. Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. doi:10.1037/h0043158
62. Morey, C. C., & Cowan, N. (2004). When visual and verbal memories compete: Evidence of cross-domain limits in working memory. Psycho-nomic Bulletin & Review, 11, 296-301. doi:10.3758/BF03196573
63. Morey, C. C., Cowan, N., Morey, R. D., & Rouder, J. N. (2011). Flexible attention allocation to visual and auditory working memory tasks: Ma-nipulating reward induces a trade-off. Attention, Perception, & Psycho-physics, 73, 458-472. doi:10.3758/s13414-010-0031-4
64. Murdock, B. B. (1993). TODAM2: A model for the storage and retrieval of item, association, and serial order information. Psychological Review, 100, 183-203. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.183
65. Murnane, K., Phelps, M. P., & Malmberg, K. (1999). Context-dependent recognition memory: The ICE theory. Journal of Experimental Psychol-ogy: General, 128, 403-415. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.4.403
66. Nairne, J. S. (1990). A feature model of immediate memory. Memory & Cognition, 18, 251-269. doi:10.3758/BF03213879
67. Nairne, J. S. (2002). Remembering over the short-term: The case against the standard model. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 53-81. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135131
68. Nelder, J. A., & Mead, R. (1965). A simplex method for function mini-mization. Computer Journal, 7, 308-313.
69. Oberauer, K., & Kliegl, R. (2001). Beyond resources: Formal models of complexity effects and age differences in working memory. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 13, 187-215. doi:10.1080/09541440042000278
70. Oberauer, K., & Kliegl, R. (2006). A formal model of capacity limits in working memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 55, 601-626. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2006.08.009
71. Oberauer, K., & Lewandowsky, S. (2008). Forgetting in immediate serial recall: Decay, temporal distinctiveness, or interference? Psychological Review, 115, 544-576. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.3.544
72. Penney, C. G. (1989). Modality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory. Memory & Cognition, 17, 398-422. doi:10.3758/BF03202613
73. Portrat, S., Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2008). Time-related decay or interference-based forgetting in working memory? Journal of Experi-mental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 1561-1564. doi:10.1037/a0013356
74. Potter, M. C., & Lombardi, L. (1990). Regeneration in the short-term recall of sentences. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 633-654. doi: 10.1016/0749-596X(90)90042-X
75. R Development Core Team. (2009). R: A language and environment for statistical computing [Computer software manual]. Vienna, Austria: Author.
76. Raye, C. L., Johnson, M. K., Mitchell, K. J., Greene, E. J., & Johnson, M. R. (2007). Refreshing: A minimal executive function. Cortex, 43, 135-145. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70451-9
77. Ricker, T. J., Cowan, N., & Morey, C. C. (2010). Visual working memory is disrupted by covert verbal retrieval. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 516-521. doi:10.3758/PBR.17.4.516
78. Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Cowan, N., Zwilling, C. E., Morey, C. C., & Pratte, M. S. (2008). An assessment of fixed-capacity models of visual working memory. PNAS: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 105, 5975-5979. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711295105
79. Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Morey, C. C., & Cowan, N. (2011). How to measure working-memory capacity in the change-detection paradigm. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 324-330. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0055-3
80. Rouder, J. N., Morey, R. D., Speckman, P. L., & Province, J. M. (2011). Default Bayes factors for ANOVA designs. Manuscript submitted for publication.
81. Rouder, J. N., Speckman, P. L., Sun, D., Morey, R. D., & Iverson, G. (2009). Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16, 225-237. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.2.225
82. Saito, S., Logie, R. H., Morita, A., & Law, A. (2008). Visual and phono-logical similarity effects in verbal immediate serial recall: A test with kanji materials. Journal of Memory and Language, 59, 1-17. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2008.01.004
83. Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing speed theory of adult age differ-ences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403-428. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.103.3.403
84. Saults, J. S., & Cowan, N. (2007). A central capacity limit to the simul-taneous storage of visual and auditory arrays in working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 663-684. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.663
85. Schwarz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461-464. doi:10.1214/aos/1176344136
86. Schweickert, R., Guentert, L., & Hersberger, L. (1990). Phonological similarity, pronunciation rate, and memory span. Psychological Science, 1, 74-77. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00071.x
87. Sellke, T., Bayarri, M. J., & Berger, J. O. (2001). Calibration of p values for testing precise null hypotheses. American Statistician, 55, 62-71. doi:10.1198/000313001300339950
88. Shiffrin, R. M., & Nosofsky, R. M. (1994). Seven plus or minus two: A commentary on capacity limitations. Psychological Review, 101, 357-361. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.101.2.357
89. Shiffrin, R. M., & Steyvers, M. (1997). A model for recognition memory: REM-retrieving effectively from memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 4, 145-166. doi:10.3758/BF03209391
90. Simon, H. A. (1974, February 8). How big is a chunk? Science, 183, 482-488. doi:10.1126/science.183.4124.482
91. Stevanovski, B., & Jolicoeur, P. (2007). Visual short-term memory: Cen-tral capacity limitations in short-term consolidation. Visual Cognition, 15, 532-563. doi:10.1080/13506280600871917
92. Tehan, G., & Humphreys, M. S. (1995). Transient phonemic codes and immunity to proactive interference. Memory & Cognition, 23, 181-191. doi:10.3758/BF03197220
93. Thiele, J., Pratte, M., & Rouder, J. (2011). On perfect working-memory performance with large numbers of items. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 958-963. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0108-7
94. Towse, J. N., Cowan, N., Hitch, G. J., & Horton, N. J. (2008). The recall of information from working memory: Insights from behavioural and chronometric perspectives. Experimental Psychology, 55, 371-383. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169.55.6.371
95. Tulving, E., & Patkau, J. E. (1962). Concurrent effects of contextual constraint and word frequency on immediate recall and learning of verbal material. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 16, 83-95. doi:10.1037/h0083231
96. Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2007). The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory. Psychological Review, 114, 104-132. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.104
97. van der Meulen, M., Logie, R. H., & Della Sala, S. (2009). Selective interference with image retention and generation: Evidence for the workspace model. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1568-1580. doi:10.1080/17470210802483800
98. Vergauwe, E., Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2009). Visual and spatial working memory are not that dissociated after all: A time-based resource-sharing account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learn-ing, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1012-1028. doi:10.1037/a0015859
99. Vergauwe, E., Barrouillet, P., & Camos, V. (2010). Do mental processes share a domain-general resource? Psychological Science, 21, 384-390. doi:10.1177/0956797610361340
100. Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2007). A practical solution to the pervasive problem of p values. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 779-804. doi:10.3758/BF03194105
101. Waugh, N. C., & Norman, D. A. (1965). Primary memory. Psychological Review, 72, 89-104. doi:10.1037/h0021797
102. Wetzels, R., Matzke, D., Lee, M. D., Rouder, J. N., Iverson, G., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2011). Statistical evidence in experimental psy-chology: An empirical comparison using 855 t tests. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 291-298. doi:10.1177/1745691611406923
103. Wheeler, M. E., & Treisman, A. M. (2002). Binding in short-term visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 48-64. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.131.1.48
104. Wilken, P., & Ma, W. J. (2004). A detection theory account of change detection. Journal of Vision, 4(12), Article 11. doi:10.1167/4.12.11
105. Zhang, W., & Luck, S. J. (2008, May 8). Discrete fixed-resolution repre-sentations in visual working memory. Nature, 453, 233-235. doi: 10.1038/nature06860