A Temporal Ratio Model of Memory

Psychological Review

Volumn 114, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 539-576

  Brown, Gordon D A ^a   Neath, Ian ^b   Chater, Nick ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK   (United Kingdom)

^b MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

distinctiveness; memory; model; time

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTENTION; HUMAN; LEARNING; LONG TERM MEMORY; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL; RECALL;

ATTENTION; HUMANS; MENTAL RECALL; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; RETENTION (PSYCHOLOGY); SERIAL LEARNING;

EID: 34548630989     PISSN: 0033295X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.114.3.539     Document Type: Article

References (255)

1. Alin L.H. Proactive inhibition as a function of the time interval between the learning of the two tasks and the number of prior lists. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 7 (1968) 1024-1029
2. Alluisi E.A., and Sidorsky R.C. The empirical validity of equal discriminability scaling. Journal of Experimental Psychology 55 (1958) 86-95
3. Anderson J.R., Bothell D., Lebiere C., and Matessa M. An integrated theory of list memory. Journal of Memory and Language 38 (1998) 341-380
4. Anderson J.R., Fincham J.M., and Douglass S. Practice and retention: A unifying analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25 (1999) 1120-1136
5. Anderson J.R., and Matessa M. A production system theory of serial memory. Psychological Review 104 (1997) 728-748
6. Anderson J.R., and Milson R. Human memory: An adaptive perspective. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 703-719
7. Anderson J.R., and Schooler L.J. Reflections of the environment in memory. Psychological Science 2 (1991) 396-408
8. Ashby F.G. Multidimensional models of categorization. In: Ashby F.G. (Ed). Multidimensional models of perception and cognition (1992), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 449-483
9. Ashby F.G., and Maddox W.T. Relations between prototype, exemplar, and decision bound models of categorization. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 37 (1993) 372-400
10. Ashby F.G., Maddox W.T., and Lee W.W. On the dangers of averaging across subjects when using multidimensional-scaling or the similarity-choice model. Psychological Science 5 (1994) 144-151
11. Ashby F.G., and Perrin N.A. Toward a unified theory of similarity and recognition. Psychological Review 6 (1988) 363-378
12. Atkinson R.C., and Shiffrin R.M. Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In: Spence K.W., and Spence J.T. (Eds). The psychology of learning and motivation 2 (1968), Academic Press, New York 89-195
13. Atkinson R.C., and Shiffrin R.M. The control of short-term memory. Scientific American 224 (1971, August) 82-90
14. Baddeley A.D. How does acoustic similarity influence short-term memory?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 20 (1968) 249-263
15. Baddeley A.D. The psychology of memory (1976), Basic Books, New York
16. Baddeley A.D. Working memory (1986), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
17. Baddeley A.D., and Ecob J.R. Simultaneous acoustic and semantic coding in short-term memory. Nature 227 (1970, July 18) 288-289
18. Baddeley A.D., and Hitch G.J. Recency re-examined. In: Dornic S. (Ed). Attention and performance VI (1977), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 647-667
19. Baddeley A.D., and Scott D. Short term forgetting in the absence of proactive interference. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 23 (1971) 275-283
20. Baddeley A.D., Thomson N., and Buchanan M. Word length and the structure of short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 14 (1975) 575-589
21. Barenblatt G.I. Scaling, self-similarity, and intermediate asymptotics (1996), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
22. Bjork R.A. Recency and recovery in human memory. In: Roediger III H.L., Nairne J.S., Neath I., and Surprenant A.M. (Eds). The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (2001), American Psychological Association, Washington DC 211-232
23. Bjork R.A., and Whitten W.B. Recency-sensitive retrieval processes in long-term free recall. Cognitive Psychology 6 (1974) 173-189
24. Bone R.N., and Goulet L.R. Serial position and the Von Restorff isolation effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology 76 (1968) 494-496
25. Bousfield W.A. The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology 49 (1953) 229-240
26. Bower G.H. Adaptation-level coding of stimuli and serial position effects. In: Appley M.H. (Ed). Adaptation-level theory (1971), Academic Press, New York 175-201
27. Braun H.W., and Heymann S.P. Meaningfulness of material, distribution of practice, and serial-position curves. Journal of Experimental Psychology 56 (1958) 146-150
28. Braun K., and Rubin D.C. The spacing effect depends on an encoding deficit, retrieval, and time in working memory: Evidence from once-presented words. Memory 6 (1998) 37-65
29. Brodie D.A., and Prytulak L.S. Free recall curves: Nothing but rehearsing some items more or recalling them sooner?. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 14 (1975) 549-563
30. Brown G.D.A., and Chater N. The chronological organisation of memory: Common psychological foundations for remembering and timing. In: Hoerl C., and McCormack T. (Eds). Time and memory: Issues in philosophy and psychology (2001), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England 77-110
31. Brown, G. D. A., Della Sala, S., Foster, J. K., & Vousden, J. I. (in press). Amnesia, rehearsal, and temporal distinctiveness models of recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
32. Brown G.D.A., and Hulme C. Modeling item length effects in memory span: No rehearsal needed?. Journal of Memory and Language 34 (1995) 594-621
33. Brown G.D.A., and Lamberts K. Double dissociations, models, and serial position curves. Cortex 39 (2003) 148-152
34. Brown G.D.A., and McCormack T. The role of time in human memory and binding: A review of the evidence. In: Zimmer H.D., Mecklinger A., and Lindenberger U. (Eds). Binding in human memory: A neurocognitive approach (2006), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England 251-290
35. Brown G.D.A., McCormack T., Smith M., and Stewart N. Identification and bisection of temporal durations and tone frequencies: Common models for temporal and non-temporal stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 31 (2005) 919-938
36. Brown, G. D. A., & Morin, C. (2006, July). Memory by temporal sampling. Paper presented at the 4th International Conference on Memory, Sydney, Australia.
37. Brown G.D.A., Morin C., and Lewandowsky S. Evidence for time-based models of free recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 13 (2006) 717-723
38. Brown G.D.A., Preece T., and Hulme C. Oscillator-based memory for serial order. Psychological Review 107 (2000) 127-181
39. Brown G.D.A., and Vousden J. Adaptive sequential behaviour: Oscillators as rational mechanisms. In: Oaksford M., and Chater N. (Eds). Rational models of cognition (1998), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England 165-193
40. Brown G.D.A., Vousden J.I., McCormack T., and Hulme C. The development of memory for serial order: A temporal contextual distinctiveness model. International Journal of Psychology 34 (1999) 389-402
41. Brown J. Some test of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 10 (1958) 12-21
42. Buhusi C.V., and Meck W.H. What makes us tick? Functional and neural mechanisms of interval timing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6 (2005) 755-765
43. Burgess N. A solvable connectionist model of immediate recall of ordered lists. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 7 (1995) 51-58
44. Burgess N., and Hitch G.J. Towards a network model of the articulatory loop. Journal of Memory and Language 31 (1992) 429-460
45. Burgess N., and Hitch G.J. A connectionist model of STM for serial order. In: Gathercole S.E. (Ed). Models of short-term memory (1996), Psychology Press, Hove, England 51-72
46. Burgess N., and Hitch G.J. Memory for serial order: A network model of the phonological loop and its timing. Psychological Review 106 (1999) 551-581
47. Buxton C.E., and Newman E.B. The forgetting of "crowded" and "isolated" materials. Journal of Experimental Psychology 26 (1940) 180-198
48. Chater N., and Brown G.D.A. Scale invariance as a unifying psychological principle. Cognition 69 (1999) B17-B24
49. Chechile R.A. Memory hazard functions: A vehicle for theory development and test. Psychological Review 113 (2006) 31-56
50. Chen S.F., Swartz K.B., and Terrace H.S. Knowledge of the ordinal position of list items in rhesus monkeys. Psychological Science 8 (1997) 80-86
51. Cimbalo R.S., Nowak B.I., and Soderstrom J.A. The isolation effect in children's short term memory. Journal of General Psychology 105 (1981) 215-223
52. Clark S.E., and Gronlund S.D. Global matching models of recognition memory: How the models match the data. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 3 (1996) 37-60
53. Conrad R. Serial order intrusions in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology 51 (1960) 45-48
54. Conrad R. Acoustic confusions in immediate memory. British Journal of Psychology 55 (1964) 75-84
55. Conrad R. Interference or decay over short retention intervals. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6 (1967) 49-54
56. Cowan N., Saults J.S., and Nugent L.D. The role of absolute and relative amounts of time in forgetting within immediate memory: The case of tone pitch comparisons. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 4 (1997) 393-397
57. Cowan N., Saults J.S., and Nugent L. The ravages of absolute and relative amounts of time on memory. In: Roediger III H.L., Nairne J.S., Neath I., and Surprenant A.M. (Eds). The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (2001), American Psychological Association, Washington DC 315-330
58. Crowder R.G. Principles of learning and memory (1976), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
59. Davelaar E.J., Goshen-Gottstein Y., Ashkenazi A., Haarmann H.J., and Usher M. The demise of short-term memory revisited: Empirical and computational investigations of recency effects. Psychological Review 112 (2005) 3-42
60. Davelaar E.J., Haarmann H.J., Goshen-Gottstein Y., and Usher M. Semantic similarity dissociates short- from long-term recency effects: Testing a neurocomputational model of list memory. Memory & Cognition 34 (2006) 323-334
61. DeSoto C.B., and Bosley J.G. The cognitive structure of a social structure. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 64 (1962) 303-307
62. Ebenholtz S.M. Position mediated transfer between serial learning and a spatial discrimination task. Journal of Experimental Psychology 65 (1963) 603-608
63. Ellis N.R., Detterman D.K., Runcie D., McCarver R.B., and Craig E.M. Amnesic effects in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology 89 (1971) 357-361
64. Elvevåg B., Brown G.D.A., McCormack T., Vousden J.I., and Goldberg T.E. Identification of tone duration, line length and letter position: An experimental approach to timing and working memory deficits in schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113 (2004) 509-521
65. Erickson M.A., and Kruschke J.K. Rules and exemplars in category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 127 (1998) 107-140
66. Eriksen C.W., and Hake H.W. Absolute judgments as a function of stimulus range and number of stimulus and response categories. Journal of Experimental Psychology 49 (1955) 323-332
67. Eriksen C.W., and Hake H.W. Anchor effects in absolute judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology 53 (1957) 132-138
68. Estes W.K. Statistical theory of spontaneous recovery and regression. Psychological Review 62 (1955) 145-154
69. Estes W.K. An associative basis for coding and organization in memory. In: Melton A.W., and Martin E. (Eds). Coding processes in human memory (1972), Winston, Washington, DC 161-190
70. Estes W.K. Phonemic coding and rehearsal in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 12 (1973) 360-372
71. Estes W.K. Memory for temporal information. In: Michon J.A., and Jackson J.L. (Eds). Time, mind, and behavior (1985), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany 151-168
72. Estes W.K. On types of item coding and source of recall in short-term memory. In: Hockley W.E., and Lewandowsky S. (Eds). Relating theory and data: Essays on human memory in honor of Bennet B. Murdock (1991), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 155-174
73. Estes W.K. Classification and cognition (1994), Oxford University Press, New York
74. Estes W.K. Processes of memory loss, recovery, and distortion. Psychological Review 104 (1997) 148-169
75. Fabiani M., and Donchin E. Encoding processes and memory organization: A model of the von Restorff effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 21 (1995) 224-240
76. Farrell S. Mixed-list phonological similarity effects in delayed serial recall. Journal of Memory and Language 55 (2006) 587-600
77. Farrell S., and Lewandowsky S. An endogenous distributed model of ordering in serial recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 9 (2002) 59-79
78. Farrell S., and Lewandowsky S. Dissimilar items benefit from phonological similarity in serial recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 29 (2003) 838-849
79. Flexser A.J., and Bower G.H. How frequency affects recency judgments: A model for recency discrimination. Journal of Experimental Psychology 103 (1974) 706-716
80. Frankish C. Modality-specific grouping effects in short-term memory. Journal of Memory and Language 24 (1985) 200-209
81. Frankish C. Perceptual organization and precategorical acoustic storage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15 (1989) 469-479
82. Friedman W.J. Memory processes underlying humans' chronological sense of the past. In: Hoerl C., and McCormack T. (Eds). Time and memory: Issues in philosophy and psychology (2001), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England 139-167
83. Gallistel C. The organization of learning (1990), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
84. Gallistel C.R., and Gibbon J. Time, rate, and conditioning. Psychological Review 107 (2000) 289-344
85. Gallistel C.R., and Gibbon J. The symbolic foundations of conditioned behavior (2002), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ
86. Gardiner J.M., Craik F.I.M., and Birtwistle J. Retrieval cues and release from proactive inhibition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 11 (1972) 778-783
87. Garner W.G. Uncertainty and structure as psychological concepts (1962), Wiley, London
88. Gibbon J., Church R.M., and Meck W.H. Scalar timing in memory. In: Gibbon J., and Allan L.G. (Eds). Timing and time perception (1984), New York Academy of Sciences, New York 52-77
89. Gigerenzer G. Adaptive thinking: Rationality in the real world (2000), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
90. Gillund G., and Shiffrin R.M. A retrieval model for both recognition and recall. Psychological Review 91 (1984) 1-67
91. Glanzer M. Storage mechanisms in recall. In: Bower G.H. (Ed). The psychology of learning and motivation 5 (1972), Academic Press, New York 129-193
92. Glanzer M., and Cunitz A.R. Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 5 (1966) 351-360
93. Glanzer M., and Meinzer A. The effects of intralist activity on free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6 (1967) 928-935
94. Glenberg A.M., Bradley M.M., Kraus T.A., and Renzaglia G.J. Studies of the long-term recency effect: Support for a contextually guided retrieval hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 9 (1983) 231-255
95. Glenberg A.M., Bradley M.M., Stevenson J.A., Kraus T.A., Tkachuk M.J., Gretz A.L., et al. A two-process account of long-term serial position effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6 (1980) 355-369
96. Glenberg A.M., and Swanson N. A temporal distinctiveness theory of recency and modality effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 12 (1986) 3-24
97. Hacker M.J. Speed and accuracy of recency judgments for events in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 6 (1980) 651-675
98. Harper D.N., McLean A.P., and Dalrymple-Alford J.C. List item memory in rats: Effects of delay and task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 19 (1993) 307-316
99. Haubensak G. The consistency model: A process model for absolute judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18 (1992) 303-309
100. Healy A.F. Separating item from order information in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13 (1974) 644-655
101. Healy A.F. Coding of temporal-spatial patterns in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 14 (1975) 480-495
102. Healy A.F., Havas D.A., and Parker J.T. Comparing serial position effects in semantic and episodic memory using reconstruction or order tasks. Journal of Memory and Language 42 (2000) 147-167
103. Healy A.F., and Parker J.T. Serial position effects in semantic memory: Reconstructing the order of the U.S. presidents and vice presidents. In: Roediger III H.L., Nairne J.S., Neath I., and Surprenant A.M. (Eds). The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (2001), American Psychological Association, Washington DC 171-188
104. Henson, R. N. A. (1996). Short-term memory for serial order. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England.
105. Henson R.N.A. Item repetition in short-term memory: Ranschburg repeated. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 24 (1998) 1162-1181
106. Henson R.N.A. Short-term memory for serial order: The start-end model. Cognitive Psychology 36 (1998) 73-137
107. Henson R.N.A. Positional information in short-term memory: Relative or absolute?. Memory & Cognition 27 (1999) 915-927
108. Henson R.N.A., Norris D.G., Page M.P.A., and Baddeley A.D. Unchained memory: Error patterns rule out chaining models of immediate serial recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology 49 A (1996) 80-115
109. Hintzman D.L. Repetition and memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation 10 (1976) 47-91
110. Hintzman D.L. "Schema abstraction" in a model-trace memory model. Psychological Review 93 (1986) 411-428
111. Hintzman D.L., and Block R.A. Repetition and memory: Evidence for a multiple-trace hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology 88 (1971) 297-306
112. Hitch G.J., Burgess N., Towse J.N., and Culpin V. Temporal grouping effects in immediate recall: A working memory analysis. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology 49 A (1996) 116-139
113. Hitch G.J., and Fastame M.C. How is the serial order of a verbal sequence coded? Some comparisons between models. Memory 13 (2005) 247-258
114. Hitch, G. J., Rejman, M. H., & Turner, N. C. (1980, July). A new perspective on the recency effect. Paper presented at the meeting of the Experimental Psychology Society, Cambridge, England.
115. Houghton G. The problem of serial order: A neural network model of sequence learning and recall. In: Dale R., Mellish C., and Zock M. (Eds). Current research in natural language generation (1990), Academic Press, London 287-319
116. Houghton G. Inhibitory control of neurodynamics: Opponent mechanisms in sequencing and selective attention. In: Oaksford M., and Brown G.D.A. (Eds). Neurodynamics and psychology (1994), Academic Press, London 107-155
117. Howard M.W., and Kahana M.J. Contextual variability and serial position effects in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25 (1999) 923-941
118. Howard M.W., and Kahana M.J. A distributed representation of temporal context. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 46 (2002) 269-299
119. Hulme C., Maughan S., and Brown G.D.A. Memory for words and non-words: Evidence for a long-term memory contribution to short-term memory tasks. Journal of Memory and Language 30 (1991) 685-701
120. Humphreys M.S., Bain J.D., and Pike R. Different ways to cue a coherent memory system: A theory for episodic, semantic, and procedural tasks. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 208-233
121. Hunt R.R. The subtlety of distinctiveness: What von Restorff really did. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2 (1995) 105-112
122. Huttenlocher J., Hedges L.V., and Prohaska V. Memory for day of the week: A 5 + 2 day cycle. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 121 (1992) 313-326
123. Izawa C. On human memory: Evolution, progress, and reflections on the 30th anniversary of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1999), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ
124. Jensen A.R. Temporal and spatial effects of serial position. American Journal of Psychology 75 (1962) 390-400
125. Kahana M.J. Associative retrieval processes in free recall. Memory & Cognition 24 (1996) 103-109
126. Kent C., and Lamberts K. An exemplar account of the bow and set-size effects in absolute identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 31 (2005) 289-305
127. Keppel G. Facilitation in short- and long-term retention of paired associates following distributed practice in learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 3 (1964) 91-111
128. Keppel G., and Underwood B.J. Proactive inhibition in short-term retention of single items. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1 (1962) 153-161
129. Kieras D.E., Meyer D.E., Mueller S., and Seymour Y. Insights into working memory from the perspective of the EPIC architecture for modelling skilled perceptual-motor and cognitive human performance. In: Miyake A., and Shah P. (Eds). Models of working memory (1999), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 183-223
130. Kincaid J.P., and Wickens D.D. Temporal gradient of release from proactive inhibition. Journal of Experimental Psychology 86 (1970) 313-316
131. Koffka K. Principles of Gestalt psychology (1935), Routledge & Kegan Paul, London
132. Kruschke J.K. ALCOVE: An exemplar-based connectionist model of category learning. Psychological Review 99 (1992) 22-44
133. Kruschke J.K., and Johansen M.K. A model of probabilistic category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25 (1999) 1083-1119
134. Lacouture Y., Grondin S., and Mori S. Absolute identification of temporal intervals: Preliminary data. In: Sommerfeld E., Kompass R., and Lachmann T. (Eds). Proceedings of the Seventeenth Meeting of the International Society of Psychophysics (2001), Pabst Science Publishers, Berlin, Germany 493-498
135. Lacouture Y., and Marley A.A.J. Choice and response time processes in the identification and categorization of unidimensional stimuli. Perception & Psychophysics 66 (2004) 1206-1226
136. Lamberts K. Categorization under time pressure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 124 (1995) 161-180
137. Laming D. Analysis of short-term retention: Models for Brown-Peterson experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18 (1992) 1342-1365
138. Laming D. Testing the idea of distinct storage mechanisms in memory. International Journal of Psychology 34 (1999) 419-426
139. Laming D. Predicting free recalls. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 32 (2006) 1146-1163
140. Lansdale M.W. Modeling memory for absolute location. Psychological Review 105 (1998) 351-378
141. Lee C.L., and Estes W.K. Item and order information in short-term memory: Evidence for multilevel perturbation processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 7 (1981) 149-169
142. Lewandowsky S. Redintegration and response suppression in serial recall: A dynamic network model. International Journal of Psychology 34 (1999) 434-446
143. Lewandowsky S., and Brown G.D.A. Serial recall and presentation schedule: A micro-analysis of local distinctiveness. Memory 13 (2005) 283-292
144. Lewandowsky S., Brown G.D.A., Wright T., and Nimmo L.M. Timeless memory: Evidence against temporal distinctiveness models of short term memory for serial order. Journal of Memory and Language 54 (2006) 20-38
145. Lewandowsky S., Duncan M., and Brown G.D.A. Time does not cause forgetting in short-term serial recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 11 (2004) 771-790
146. Lewandowsky S., and Murdock B.B. Memory for serial order. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 25-57
147. Lewandowsky, S., Nimmo, L. M., & Brown, G. D. A. (in press). When temporal isolation benefits memory for serial order. Journal of Memory and Language
148. Lippman L.G. Perceptual isolation and position judgment. American Journal of Psychology 93 (1980) 683-695
149. Loess H., and Waugh N.C. Short-term memory and inter-trial interval. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6 (1967) 87-92
150. Logan G.D. Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review 95 (1988) 492-527
151. Lovett M.C., Reder L.M., and Lebiere C. Modelling working memory in a unified perspective: An ACT-R perspective. In: Miyake A., and Shah P. (Eds). Models of working memory (1999), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 135-182
152. Luce R.D. Detection and recognition. In: Luce R.D., Bush R.R., and Galanter E. (Eds). Handbook of mathematical psychology (1963), Wiley, New York 103-190
153. Maddox W.T. On the dangers of averaging across observers when comparing decision bound models and generalized context models of categorization. Perception & Psychophysics 61 (1999) 354-374
154. Mandler G., Pearlstone Z., and Koopmans H.S. Effects of organization and semantic similarity on recall and recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8 (1969) 410-423
155. Marcer D. Interference and short-term retention. British Journal of Psychology 63 (1972) 533-536
156. Maylor E.A. Serial position effects in semantic memory: Reconstructing the order of verses of hymns. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 9 (2002) 816-820
157. Maylor E.A., Chater N., and Brown G.D.A. Scale invariance in the retrieval of retrospective and prospective memories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 8 (2001) 162-167
158. Maylor E.A., Vousden J.I., and Brown G.D.A. Adult age differences in short-term memory for serial order: Data and a model. Psychology and Aging 14 (1999) 572-594
159. McCormack T., Brown G.D.A., Maylor E.A., Richardson L.B.N., and Darby R.J. Effects of aging on absolute identification of duration. Psychology and Aging 17 (2002) 363-378
160. McCrary J.W., and Hunter W.S. Serial position curves in verbal learning. Science 117 (1953) 131-134
161. McElree B. Accessing short-term memory with semantic and phonological information: A time-course analysis. Memory & Cognition 24 (1996) 173-187
162. McGeoch J.A., and Irion A.L. The psychology of human learning (1952), Longmans, New York
163. Medin D.L., and Schaffer M.M. Context theory of classification learning. Psychological Review 85 (1978) 207-238
164. Melton A.W. Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 2 (1963) 1-21
165. Melton A.W., and Irwin J.M. The influence of degree of interpolated learning on retroactive inhibition and the overt transfer of specific responses. American Journal of Psychology 53 (1940) 173-203
166. Mensink G.J., and Raaijmakers J.G.W. A model for interference and forgetting. Psychological Review 95 (1988) 434-455
167. Miller G.A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review 63 (1956) 81-97
168. Miller G.A., and Nicely P.A. An analysis of perceptual confusions among some English consonants. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 27 (1955) 338-352
169. Modigliani V., and Hedges D.G. Distributed rehearsals and the primacy effect in single-trial free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13 (1987) 426-436
170. Morton J. Repeated items and decay in memory. Psychonomic Science 10 (1968) 219-220
171. Murdock Jr. B.B. The distinctiveness of stimuli. Psychological Review 67 (1960) 16-31
172. Murdock Jr. B.B. The serial position effect of free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology 64 (1962) 482-488
173. Murdock Jr. B.B. Human memory: Theory and data (1974), Erlbaum, Potomac, MD
174. Murdock B., and Metcalfe J. Controlled rehearsal in single-trial free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 17 (1978) 309-324
175. Muter P. Response latencies in discriminations of recency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 5 (1979) 160-169
176. Myung I.J., Kim C., and Pitt M.A. Toward an explanation of the power law artifact: Insights from response surface analysis. Memory & Cognition 28 (2000) 832-840
177. Myung I.J., and Pitt M.A. Applying Occam's razor in modeling cognition: A Bayesian approach. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 4 (1997) 79-95
178. Nairne J.S. A framework for interpreting recency effects in immediate serial recall. Memory & Cognition 16 (1988) 343-352
179. Nairne J.S. A feature model of immediate memory. Memory & Cognition 18 (1990) 251-269
180. Nairne J.S. Positional uncertainty in long-term memory. Memory & Cognition 19 (1991) 332-340
181. Nairne J.S. The loss of positional certainty in long-term memory. Psychological Science 3 (1992) 199-202
182. Nairne J.S. Short-term/working memory. In: Bjork E.L., and Bjork R.A. (Eds). Memory (1996), Academic Press, New York 101-126
183. Nairne J.S. Remembering over the short-term: The case against the standard model. Annual Review of Psychology 53 (2002) 53-81
184. Nairne J.S., and Kelley M.R. Reversing the phonological similarity effect. Memory & Cognition 27 (1999) 45-53
185. Nairne J.S., Neath I., Serra M., and Byun E. Positional distinctiveness and the ratio rule in free recall. Journal of Memory and Language 37 (1997) 155-166
186. Neath I. Contextual and distinctive processes and the serial position functions. Journal of Memory and Language 32 (1993) 820-840
187. Neath I. Distinctiveness and serial position effects in recognition. Memory & Cognition 21 (1993) 689-698
188. Neath I. Human memory: An introduction to research, data, and theory (1998), Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA
189. Neath I. Modeling the effects of irrelevant speech on memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 7 (2000) 403-423
190. Neath I., Bireta T.J., and Surprenant A.M. The time-based word length effect and stimulus set specificity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 10 (2003) 430-434
191. Neath I., and Brown G.D.A. Further applications of a local distinctiveness model of memory. Psychology of Learning and Motivation 46 (2006) 201-243
192. Neath I., and Brown G.D.A. Making distinctiveness models of memory distinct. In: Nairne J.S. (Ed). The foundations of remembering: Essays in honor of Henry L. Roediger III (2007), Psychology Press, New York 125-140
193. Neath I., Brown G.D.A., McCormack T., Chater N., and Freeman R. Distinctiveness models of memory and absolute identification: Evidence for local, not global, effects. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 59 (2006) 121-135
194. Neath I., and Crowder R.G. Schedules of presentation and distinctiveness in human memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16 (1990) 316-327
195. Neath I., and Knoedler A.J. Distinctiveness and serial position effects in recognition and sentence processing. Journal of Memory and Language 33 (1994) 776-795
196. Neath I., and Nairne J.S. Word-length effects in immediate memory: Overwriting trace-decay theory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2 (1995) 429-441
197. Ng, H. L. H. (1996). Are time dependent oscillators responsible for temporal grouping effects in short-term memory? Unpublished honors thesis, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Australia.
198. Ng M.L.H., and Maybery M.T. Grouping in short-term verbal memory: Is position coded temporally?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology 55 A (2002) 391-424
199. Nilsson L.-G., Wright E., and Murdock B.B. The effects of visual presentation method on single-trial free recall. Memory & Cognition 3 (1975) 427-433
200. Nimmo L.M., and Lewandowsky S. From brief gaps to very long pauses: Temporal isolation does not benefit serial recall. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 12 (2005) 999-1004
201. Nimmo L.M., and Lewandowsky S. Distinctiveness revisited: Unpredictable temporal isolation does not benefit short-term serial recall of heard or seen events. Memory & Cognition 34 (2006) 1368-1375
202. Nosofsky R.M. Attention, similarity and the identification-categorization relationship. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 115 (1986) 39-57
203. Nosofsky R.M. Similarity scaling and cognitive process models. Annual Review of Psychology 43 (1992) 25-53
204. Nosofsky R.M., and Palmeri T.J. An exemplar-based random walk model of speeded classification. Psychological Review 104 (1997) 266-300
205. Ornstein P.A., Naus M.J., and Stone B.P. Rehearsal training and developmental differences in memory. Developmental Psychology 13 (1977) 15-24
206. Page M.P.A., and Norris D. The primacy model: A new model of immediate serial recall. Psychological Review 105 (1998) 761-781
207. Parducci A. Comment on Haubensak's associative theory of judgment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18 (1992) 310-313
208. Penney C.G. Modality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory. Memory & Cognition 17 (1989) 398-422
209. Peterson L.R. Short-term verbal memory and learning. Psychological Review 73 (1966) 193-207
210. Peterson L.R., and Gentile A. Proactive interference as a function of time between tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology 70 (1965) 473-478
211. Peterson L.R., and Peterson M.J. Short-term retention of individual items. Journal of Experimental Psychology 61 (1959) 193-198
212. Petrusic J.M., and Jamieson D.G. Differential interpolation effects in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 4 (1978) 101-109
213. Pinto A.C., and Baddeley A.D. Where did you park your car? Analysis of a naturalistic long-term recency effect. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 3 (1991) 297-313
214. Pollack I. The information of elementary auditory displays: I. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 24 (1952) 745-749
215. Pollio, H. R., & Deitchman, R. (1964). The activational characteristics of a serial cognitive structure having oppositional end points. Mimeographed manuscript, University of Tennessee.
216. Postman L., and Phillips L.W. Short-term temporal changes in free recall. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 17 (1965) 132-138
217. Riefer D.M., and LaMay M.L. Memory for common and bizarre stimuli: A storage-retrieval analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 5 (1998) 312-317
218. Roediger III H.L., and Crowder R.G. A serial position effect in recall of United States presidents. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 8 (1976) 275-278
219. Rubin D.C., Hinton S., and Wenzel A. The precise time course of retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 25 (1999) 1161-1176
220. Rubin D.C., and Wenzel A.E. One hundred years of forgetting: A quantitative description of retention. Psychological Review 103 (1996) 734-760
221. Rundus D. Analysis of rehearsal processes in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology 89 (1971) 63-77
222. Ryan J. Grouping and short-term memory: Different means and patterns of grouping. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 21 (1969) 137-147
223. Ryan J. Temporal grouping, rehearsal, and short-term memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 21 (1969) 148-155
224. Schneider W. Working memory in a multilevel hybrid connectionist control architecture (CAP2). In: Miyake A., and Shah P. (Eds). Models of working memory (1999), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 340-374
225. Schweickert R., Chen S., and Poirier M. Redintegration and the useful lifetime of the verbal memory representation. International Journal of Psychology 34 (1999) 447-453
226. Sehulster J.R. Content and temporal structure of autobiographical knowledge: Remembering 25 seasons at the Metropolitan Opera. Memory & Cognition 17 (1989) 590-606
227. Shepard R.N. Stimulus and response generalization: A stochastic model relating generalization to distance in psychological space. Psychometrika 22 (1957) 325-345
228. Shepard R.N. Toward a universal law of generalization for psychological science. Science 237 (1987, September 11) 1317-1323
229. Shiffrin R.M., and Nosofsky R.M. 7 plus or minus 2: A commentary on capacity limitations. Psychological Review 101 (1994) 357-361
230. Stewart N., Brown G.D.A., and Chater N. Absolute identification by relative judgment. Psychological Review 112 (2005) 881-911
231. Surprenant A.M., Neath I., and Brown G.D.A. Modeling age-related differences in immediate memory using SIMPLE. Journal of Memory and Language 55 (2006) 572-586
232. Tan L., and Ward G. A recency-based account of the primacy effect in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 26 (2000) 1589-1625
233. Treisman M. The magical number seven and some other features of category scaling: Properties of a model for absolute judgment. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 29 (1985) 175-230
234. Tulving E. Subjective organization and effects of repetition in multi-trial free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 5 (1966) 193-197
235. Turvey M.T., Brick P., and Osborn J. Proactive interference in short-term memory as a function of prior-item retention interval. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 22 (1970) 142-147
236. Tzeng O.J.L. Positive recency effect in a delayed free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 12 (1973) 436-439
237. Underwood B.J. Interference and forgetting. Psychological Review 64 (1957) 49-60
238. Underwood B.J. Temporal codes for memories: Issues and problems (1977), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ
239. Underwood B.J., and Ekstrand B.R. Studies of distributed practice: XXIV. Differentiation and proactive inhibition. Journal of Experimental Psychology 74 (1967) 574-580
240. Underwood B.J., and Freund J.S. Effect of temporal separation of two tasks on proactive inhibition. Journal of Experimental Psychology 78 (1968) 50-54
241. Vousden J., and Brown G.D.A. To repeat or not to repeat: The time course of response suppression in sequential behaviour. In: Bullinaria J.A., Glasspool D.W., and Houghton G. (Eds). Proceedings of the Fourth Neural Computation and Psychology Workshop: Connectionist representations (1998), Springer-Verlag, London 301-315
242. Vousden J.I., Brown G.D.A., and Harley T.A. Serial control of phonology in speech production: A hierarchical model. Cognitive Psychology 41 (2000) 101-175
243. Wallace W.P. Review of the historical, empirical, and theoretical status of the von Restorff phenomenon. Psychological Bulletin 63 (1965) 410-424
244. Watkins M.J., Neath I., and Sechler E.S. Recency effect in recall of a word list when an immediate memory task is performed after each word presentation. American Journal of Psychology 102 (1989) 265-270
245. Watkins M.J., and Watkins O.C. Processing of recency items for free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology 102 (1974) 488-493
246. Wedell D.H. A constructive-associative model of the contextual dependence of unidimensional similarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 22 (1996) 634-661
247. Wickelgren W.A. Rehearsal grouping and hierarchical organisation of serial position cues in short-term memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 19 (1967) 97-102
248. Wickelgren W.A. The long and the short of memory. Psychological Bulletin 80 (1973) 425-438
249. Wickelgren W.A., Corbett A.T., and Dosher B.A. Priming and retrieval from short-term memory: A speed accuracy trade-off analysis. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19 (1980) 387-404
250. Wickens D.D., Born D.G., and Allen C.K. Proactive inhibition and item similarity in short-term memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 2 (1963) 440-445
251. Wickens T.D. Measuring the time course of retention. In: Izawa C. (Ed). On human memory: Evolution, progress, and reflections on the 30th anniversary of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1999), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 245-266
252. Wixted J.T., and Ebbesen E.B. On the form of forgetting functions. Psychological Science 2 (1991) 409-415
253. Wixted J.T., and Ebbesen E.B. Genuine power curves in forgetting: A quantitative analysis of individual subject forgetting functions. Memory & Cognition 25 (1997) 731-739
254. Wixted J.T., and McDowell J.J. Contributions to the functional analysis of single-trial free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 15 (1989) 685-697
255. Wright A.A., Cook R.G., Rivera J.J., Shyan M.R., Neiworth J.J., and Jitsumori M. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16 (1990) 1043-1059