Stress and coping with discrimination and stigmatization

Frontiers in Psychology

Volumn 2, Issue FEB, 2011, Pages

  Berjot, Sophie ^a   Gillet, Nicolas ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE REIMS CHAMPAGNE ARDENNE   (France)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DE TOURS   (France)

Author keywords

Appraisal; Coping; Identity; Model; Stress

Indexed keywords

EID: 84867135711     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16641078     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00033     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Adams, G., Tormala, T. T., and O'Brien, L. T. (2006). The effect of self-affirmation on perception of racism. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42, 616-626.
2. Allison, K. W. (1998). " Stress and oppressed social category membership," in Prejudice: The Target's Perspective, eds. J. K. Swim and C. Stangor (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 145-170.
3. Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. New York: Addison-Wesley.
4. Alter, A. L., Aronson, J., Darley, J. M., Rodriguez, C., and Ruble, D. N. (2010). Rising to the threat: reducing stereotype threat by reframing the threat as a challenge. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 46, 166-171.
5. Amirkhan, J. H. (1990). A factor analytically derived measure of coping: the Coping Strategy Indicator. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 59, 1066-1074.
6. Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., and Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 38, 113-125.
7. Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K,, and McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 130, 80-114.
8. Barnes, P. W., and Lightsey, O. R. Jr. (2005). Perceived racist discrimination, coping, stress and life satisfaction. J. Multicult. Counsell. Dev. 33, 48-61.
9. Baumeister, R. F. (1982). Self-esteem, self-presentation, and future interaction: a dilemma of reputation. J. Pers. 50, 29-45.
10. Baumeister, R. F. (1998). " The self," in Handbook of Social Psychology, eds D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill), 680-740.
11. Baumeister, R. F., and Jones, E. E. (1978). When self-presentation is constrained by the target's knowledge: consistency and compensation. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 36, 608-618.
12. Berjot, S. (2003). Qui dit que je ne suis pas intelligent ? Stratégies de mobilité individuelle et de créativité sociale chez les cibles stigmatisées selon la saillance du contexte menaçant: personnel ou social (Who says I'm not intelligent? The use individual mobility and social creativity by stigmatized individuals according to the type of threat: personal or social). N. Rev. Soc. Psychol. 3, 297-309.
13. Berjot, S., and Drozda-Senkowska, E. (2003). Stratégies de disconfirmation du stéréotype et performances des cibles stigmatisées (Strategies of stereotype disconfirmation and performance of stigmatized targets). Cahiers Internationaux de Psychologie Sociale 59, 7-21.
14. Berjot, S., and Drozda-Senkowska, E. (2007). Comment les étudiants se perçoivent-ils en fonction de leur origine sociale ? Etude de contenu du stéréotype (How students perceive themselves according to their social origin ? Study of the content of the stereotype). Eur. Rev. Appl. Psychol. 57, 119-132.
15. Berjot, S., and Girault-Lidvan, N. (2009). L'échelle d'Evaluation Cognitive Primaire 'Trait' (The 'trait' primary cognitive appraisal scale). Can. J. Behav. Sci. 58, 418-434.
16. Berjot, S., Girault-Lidvan, N., and Battaglia, N. (2008). " Stress et faire face à la discrimination et à la stigmatisation: vers un modèle du faire-face aux menaces de l'identité," (Stress and coping with discrimination and stigmatisation: toward a model of coping with identity threats), in Stress, Santé et Société (Stress, Health and Society), Vol. 4, eds. S. Berjot and B. Paty (Reims: Espur), 235-273.
17. Berjot, S., Girault-Lidvan, N., Bétremont, L., and Gillet, N. (2009). " Stress and coping with identity threats," in 23rd Annual Conference of the European Health Psychological Society, September 2009, Pisa, Italy.
18. Berjot, S., Girault-Lidvan, N., Scharnitsky, P., and Gillet, N. (2010). Comment les étudiants français d'origine maghrébine évaluent et font face à la menace de stéréotype. Application du modèle transactionnel du stress à la menace de stéréotype (How students from North African origins appraise and cope with stereotype threat: application of the transactional model of stress to the study of stereotype threat). L'Année Psychologique 110, 427-451.
19. Blanz, M., Mummendey, A., Mielke, R., and Klink, A. (1998). Responding to negative social identity: a taxonomy management strategies. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 28, 697-729.
20. Blascovich, J. Mendes, W. B., Hunter, S. B., and Licker, B. (2000). " Stigma, threat, and social interactions," in The Social Psychology of Stigma, eds T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, and J. G. Hull (New York: The Guilford Press), 307-333.
21. Blascovich, J., Spencer, S. J., Quinn, D., and Steele, C. (2001). African Americans and high blood pressure: the role of stereotype threat. Psychol. Sci. 12, 225-229.
22. Bourguignon, D., Seron, E., Yzerbyt, V., and Herman, G. (2006). Perceive group and personal discrimination: differential effects on personal self-esteem. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 36, 773-789.
23. Branscombe, N. R., and Ellemers, N. (1998). " Coping with group-based discrimination: individualistic versus group level strategies," in The Social Psychology of Stigma, eds. T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, and J. G. Hull (New York: The Guilford Press), 243-266.
24. Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., and Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: implications for group identification and well-being. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 77, 135-149.
25. Cialdini, R. B., and Richardson, K. D. (1980). Two indirect tactics of image management: basking and blasting. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 39, 406-415.
26. Clark, R., Anderson, B., Clark, V. R., and Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: a biopsychosocial model. Am. Psychol. 54, 805-816.
27. Cohen, G. L., and Garcia, J. (2005). " I Am Us" : negative stereotypes as collective threats. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 89, 566-582.
28. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., and Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 24, 385-396.
29. Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K, Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., and Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence: problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychol. Bull. 127, 87-127.
30. Crandall, C. S. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: ideology and self-interest. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 66, 882-894.
31. Crocker, J., Cornwell, B., and Major, B. (1993). The stigma of overweight: affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 64, 60-70.
32. Crocker, J., and Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: the self-protective properties of stigma. Psychol. Rev. 96, 608-630.
33. Crocker, J., Major, B., and Steele, C. (1998). " Social stigma," in Handbook of Social Psychology, eds D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, and G. Lindzey (Boston: McGraw-Hill), 504-553.
34. Deaux, K., and Ethier, K. A. (1998). " Negotiating social identity," in Prejudice: The Target's Perspective, Chap. 14, eds J. K. Swim and C. Stangor (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 301-323.
35. Deaux, K., Reid, A., Mizrahi, K., and Ethier, K. A. (1995). Parameters of social identity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 68, 280-291.
36. Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: self-determination in personality. J. Res. Pers. 19, 109-134.
37. Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains. Can. Psychol. 49, 14-23.
38. Diaz, R. M., Ayala, G., Bein, E., Henne, J., and Marin, B. V. (2001). The impact of homophobia, poverty, and racism on the mental health of gay and bisexual Latino men. Am. J. Public Health 91, 927-932.
39. Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality, and Development. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
40. Finez, L. (2008). Comprendre et prédire les stratégies d'auto-handicap revendiqué dans le domaine du sport : une approche interactionniste. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne.
41. Finez, L., and Berjot, S., Rosnet, E., and Clevland, C. (in press). Do athletes claim handicaps in low ego-threat conditions? Re-examining the effect of ego-threat on claimed self-handicapping. Sport Psychol.
42. Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., and Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distress during adolescence. J. Youth Adolesc. 29, 679-695.
43. Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: a theoretical analysis. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 46, 839-852.
44. Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. J. Health Soc. Behav. 21, 219-239.
45. Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 48, 150-170.
46. Frable, D. E. (1993). Being and feeling unique: statistical deviance and psychological marginality. J. Pers. 61, 85-110.
47. Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., Vevea, J. L., and Iuzzini, J. (2002). The " I" , the " we" , and the " when" : a meta-analysis of motivational primacy in self-definition. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 83, 574-591.
48. Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
49. Graham, S., and Hudley, C. (2007). " Race and ethnicity in the study of motivation and competence," in Handbook of Competence and Motivation, eds J. Elliot and C. S. Dweck (New York, NY: The Guilford Press), 392-413.
50. Harrell, J. P., Hall, S., and Taliaferro, J. (2003). Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: an assessment of the evidence. Am. J. Public Health 93, 243-248.
51. Haslam, S. A., O'Brien, A., Jetten, J., Vormedal, K., and Penna, S. (2005). Taking the strain: social identity, social support and the experience of stress. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 44, 355-370.
52. Hegarty, P., and Golden, A. M. (2008). Attributional beliefs about the controllability of stigmatized traits: antecedents or justifications of prejudice? J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 38, 1023-1044.
53. Herman, G. (ed.). (2007). Travail, Chômage et stigmatisation: Une analyse psychosociale. Bruxelles: De Boeck.
54. Hirt, E. R., Deppe, R. K., and Gordon, L. J. (1991). Self-reported versus behavioral self-handicapping: empirical evidence for a theoretical distinction. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 61, 981-991.
55. Hodgins, H. S., and Knee, C. R. (2002). " The integrating self and conscious experience," in Handbook of Self-Determination Research, eds E. L. Deci and R. M. Ryan (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press), 87-100.
56. Hodgins, H. S., Weibust, K. S., Weinstein, N., Shiffman, S., Miller, A., Coombs, G., and Adair, K. C. (2010). The cost of self-protection: threat response and performance as a function of autonomous and controlled motivations. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 36, 1101-1114.
57. Hodgins, H. S., Yacko, H., and Gottlieb, E. (2006). Autonomy and nondefensiveness. Motiv. Emot. 30, 283-293.
58. Hogg, M. (2003). " Social identity," in Handbook of Self and Identity, eds M. R. Leary and J. P. Tangney (New York: The Guilford Press), 462-491.
59. Hong, Y.-Y., Chiu, C.-Y., Dweck, C. S., Lin, D. M.-S., and Wan, W. (1999). Implicit theories, attributions, and coping: a meaning system approach. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 77, 588-599.
60. Huguet, P., and Régnier, I. (2007). Stereotype threat among schoolgirls in quasi-ordinary classroom circumstances. J. Educ. Psychol. 99, 545-560.
61. Hyde, J. S., and Durik, A. M. (2007). " Gender, competence, and motivation," in Handbook of Competence and Motivation, eds J. Elliot and C. S. Dweck (New York, NY: The Guilford Press), 375-391.
62. Inzlicht, M., Aronson, J., Good, C., and McKay, K. (2006). A particular resiliency to threatening environments. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42, 323-336.
63. Inzlicht, M., and Ben-Zeev, T. (2000). A threatening intellectual environment: why females are susceptible to experiencing problem-solving deficits in the presence of males. Psychol. Sci. 11, 365-371.
64. Jarry, J. L., and Kossert, A. L. (2007). Self-esteem threat combined with exposure to thin media images leads to body image compensatory self-enhancement. Body Image 4, 39-50.
65. Jones, E. E., and Berglas, S. (1978). Control of attributions about the self through self-handicapping strategies: the appeal of alcohol and the role of underachievement. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 4, 200-206.
66. Jussim, L., and Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 9, 131-155.
67. Jussim, L., Palumbo, P., C., Madon, S., and Smith, A. (2000). " Stigma and self-fulfilling prophecies," in The Social Psychology of Stigma, eds T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, and J. G. Hull (New York: The Guilford Press), 307-333.
68. Jussim, L., Robustelli, S., and Cain, T. R. (2009). " Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies," in Handbook of Motivation at School, eds K. R. Wenzel and A. Wigfield (New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group), 349-380.
69. Kaiser, C. R., and Miller, C. T. (2004). A stress and coping perspective on confronting sexism. Psychol. Women Q. 28, 168-178.
70. Klein, O., and Azzi, A. E. (2001). The strategic confirmation of meta-stereotypes: how group members attempt to tailor an out-group's representation of themselves. Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 40, 279-293.
71. Knee, C. R., Lonsbary, C., Canevello, A., and Patrick, H. (2005). Self-determination and conflict in romantic relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 89, 997-1009.
72. Kobrynowicz, D., and Branscombe, N. R. (1997). Who considers themselves victims of discrimination? Individual difference predictors of perceived gender discrimination in women and men. Psychol. Women Q. 21, 347-363.
73. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
74. Lazarus, R. S. (1999). Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. New York, NY: Springer.
75. Lazarus, R. S. (2006). Emotions and interpersonal relationships: toward a person-centered conceptualization of emotions and coping. J. Pers. 74, 9-46.
76. Lazarus, R. S., and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer.
77. Leary, M. R. (2007). Motivational and emotional aspects of the self. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 58, 317-344.
78. Lemaine, G. (1974). Social differentiation and social originality. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 4, 17-52.
79. Major, B., McCoy, S. K., Kaiser, C. R., and Quinton, W. J. (2003a). " Prejudice and self-esteem: a transactional model," in European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 14, eds W. Strobe and M. Hewstone (London: Psychology Press), 77-104.
80. Major, B., Quinton, W. J., and Schmader, T. (2003b). Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: impact of group identification and situational ambiguity. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 39, 220-231.
81. Major, B., and O'Brien, L. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56, 393-421.
82. Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., and Schimel, J. (2005). Combating stereotype threat: the effect of self-affirmation on women's intellectual performance. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 42, 236-243.
83. Marx, D. M., and Stapel, D. A. (2006). Distinguishing stereotype threat from priming effects: on the role of the social self and threat-based concern. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 91, 243-254.
84. McQueen, A., and Klein, W. M. P. (2006). Experimental manipulations of self-affirmation: a systematic review. Self Identity 5, 289-365.
85. Mendoza-Denton, R., Downey, G., Purdie, V. J., Davis, A., and Pietrzak, J. (2002). Sensitivity to status-based rejection: implications for African American students' college experience. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 83, 896-918.
86. Menec, V. H., and Perry, R. P. (1998). Reactions to stigmas among Canadian students: testing attribution-affect-help judgment model. J. Soc. Psychol. 138, 443-453.
87. Miller, C. T., and Kaiser, C. R. (2001). A theoretical perspective on coping with stigma. J. Soc. Issues 57, 73-92.
88. Miller, C. T., and Major, B. (2000). " Coping with stigma and prejudice," in The Social Psychology of Stigma, eds T. F. Heatherton, R. E. Kleck, M. R. Hebl, and J. G. Hull (New York: The Guilford Press), 243-272.
89. Mummendey, A., Klink, A., Mielke, R., Wenzel, M., and Blanz, M. (1999). Socio-structural characteristics of intergroup relations and identity management strategies: results from a field study in East Germany. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 29, 259-285.
90. Nussbaum, A. D., and Dweck, C. S. (2008). Defensiveness versus remediation: self-theories and modes of self-esteem maintenance. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 34, 599-612.
91. Osborne, J. W. (2006).Gender, stereotype threat, and anxiety: psychophysiological and cognitive evidence. Electron. J. Res. Educ. Psychol. 4, 109-138.
92. Osborne, J. W. (2007). Linking stereotype threat and anxiety. Educ. Psychol. 27, 135-154.
93. Persson, A. (2005). Facing HIV: body shape change and the (in) visibility of illness. Med. Anthropol. 24, 237-264.
94. Pinel, E. C. (1999). Stigma consciousness: the psychological legacy of social stereotypes. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 76, 114-128.
95. Pinel, E. C. (2002). Stigma consciousness in intergroup contexts: the power of conviction. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 38, 178-185.
96. Rattan, A., and Dweck, C. S. (2010). Who confronts prejudice?: the role of implicit theories in the motivation to confront prejudice. Psychol. Sci. 21, 952-959.
97. Rector, N. A., and Roger, D. (1997). The stress buffering effects of self-esteem. Pers. Individ. Dif. 23, 799-808.
98. Rhodewalt, F. (1990). " Self-handicappers: individual differences in the preference for anticipatory, self-protective acts," in Self-Handicapping: The Paradox That Isn't, eds R. L. Higgins, C. R. Snyder, and S. Berglas (New York: Plenum Press), 69-106.
99. Richman, L. S., Bennett, G. G., Pek, J., Siegler, I., and Williams, R. B. Jr. (2007). Discrimination, dispositions and cardiovascular responses to stress. Health Psychol. 26, 675-683.
100. Roth, S., and Cohen, L. (1986). Approach, avoidance, and coping with stress. Am. Psychol. 41, 813-819.
101. Sander, D., and Scherer, K. R. (2009). " La psychologie des emotions: survol des theories et débats essentiels," in Traité de psychologie des émotions, eds D. Sander and K. R. Scherer (Paris: Dunod), 1-40.
102. Scheepers, D., and Ellemers, N. (2005). When the pressure is up: the assessment of social identity threat in low and high status groups. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 41, 192-200.
103. Schmitt, M. T., and Branscombe, N. R. (2002). " The meaning and consequences of perceived discrimination in disadvantaged and privileged social groups," in European Review of Social Psychology, Vol. 12, eds W. Stroebe and M. Hewstone (London: Psychology Press), 167-199.
104. Sedikides, C. (1993). Assessment, enhancement, and self-verification determinants of the self-evaluation process. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 65, 317-338.
105. Sedikides, C., and Gregg, A. P. (2003). " Portraits of the self," in Sage Handbook of Social Psychology, eds M. A. Hogg and J. Cooper (London: Sage), 110-138.
106. Sedikides, C., and Strube, M. J. (1997). " Self-evaluation: to thine own self be good, to thine own self be sure, to thine own self be true, and to thine own self be better," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 29, ed. M. Zanna (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 209-269.
107. Sekaquaptewa, D., and Thompson, M. (2002). The differential effects of solo status on members of highand low-status groups. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28, 694-707.
108. Shapiro, J. R., and Neuberg, S. L. (2007). From stereotype threat to stereotype threats: implications of a multi-threat framework for causes, moderators, mediators, consequences, and interventions. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 11, 107-130.
109. Siegal, K., Lune, H., and Meyer, I. H. (1998). Stigma management among gay/bisexual men with HIV/AIDS. Qual. Sociol. 21, 3-24.
110. Skinner, C., and Brewer, N. (2002). The dynamics of threat and challenge appraisals prior to stressful achievement events. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 84, 60-70.
111. Skrypneck, B. J., and Snyder, M. (1982). On the self-perpetuating nature of stereotypes about women and men. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 18, 277-291.
112. Steele, C. M. (1988). " The psychology of self-affirmation: sustaining the integrity of the self," in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 21, ed. L. Berkowitz (New York: Academic Press), 261-302.
113. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: how stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. Am. Psychol. 52, 613-629.
114. Steele, C. M., and Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 69, 797-811.
115. Stier, A., and Hinshaw, S. P. (2007). Explicit and implicit stigma against individuals with mental illness. Aust. Psychol. 42, 106-117.
116. Stone, J. (2002). Battling doubt by avoiding practice: the effects of stereotype threat on self-handicapping in white athletes. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 28, 1667-1678.
117. Suls, J., and Fletcher, B. (1985). The relative efficacy of avoidant and non-avoidant coping strategies: a meta-analysis. Health Psychol. 4, 249-288.
118. Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., and Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. J. Soc. Issues 57, 31-53.
119. Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation Between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. London: Academic Press.
120. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
121. Tajfel, H., and Turner, J. C. (1986). " The social identity theory of intergroup behavior," in The Psychology of Intergroup Relations, eds S. Worchel and W. G. Austin (Chicago: Nelson-Hall), 7-24.
122. Tangney, J. P. (1992). Situational determinants of shame and guilt in young adulthood. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 18, 199-206.
123. Tangney, J. P. (2003). " Self-relevant emotions," in Handbook of Self and Identity, eds M. R. Leary and J. P. Tangney (New York: Guilford), 384-400.
124. Tracy, J. L., and Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: a theoretical model. Psychol. Inq. 15, 103-125.
125. Turner, J. C. (1982). " Toward a cognitive redefinition of the social group," in Social Identity and Intergroup Relations, ed. H. Tajfel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 5-40.
126. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., and Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: a self-categorization theory. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
127. Urdan, T., and Turner, J. C. (2005). " Competence motivation in the classroom," in Handbook of Competence and Motivation, eds A. E. Andrew and C. S. Dweck (New York, NY: Guilford Publications), 297-317.
128. Weiner, B., Perry, R. P., and Magnusson, J. (1988). An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 55, 738-748.
129. Wentzel, K. R. (2007). " Peer relationships, motivation, and academic performance at school," in Handbook of Competence and Motivation, eds J. Elliot and C. S. Dweck (New York, NY: The Guilford Press), 279-296.
130. Wheeler, S. C., and Petty, R. E. (2001). The effects of stereotype activation on behaviour: a review of possible mechanisms. Psychol. Bull. 127, 797-826.
131. Wout, D., Danso, H., Jackson, J., and Spencer, S. (2008). The many faces of stereotype threat: group and self-threat. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 44, 792-799.