The transition from acute to chronic pain: Might intensive care unit patients be at risk?

Annals of Intensive Care

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2012, Pages

  Kyranou, Maria ^a   Puntillo, Kathleen ^b  

^a PAPAGEORGIOU GENERAL HOSPITAL   (Greece)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute; Acute to chronic; Chronic; Critical care; Intensive care unit; Nerve sensitization; Pain

Indexed keywords

BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CALCITONIN GENE RELATED PEPTIDE; CALCIUM ION; CYTOKINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR;

ALLODYNIA; BRAIN REGION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM SENSITIZATION; CERVICAL SPINAL CORD; CHRONIC PAIN; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; FACILITATION; HUMAN; HYPERALGESIA; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INTENSIVE CARE; LONG TERM POTENTIATION; NERVE CELL MEMBRANE; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NERVE EXCITABILITY; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NOCICEPTION; NOCICEPTIVE STIMULATION; NONHUMAN; PAIN; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SPINAL CORD DORSAL HORN; SPINAL CORD NERVE CELL; SPINAL GANGLION;

EID: 84866131527     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21105820     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/2110-5820-2-36     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Erstad BL, Puntillo K, Gilbert HC, Grap MJ, Li D, Medina J, et al: Pain management principles in the critically ill. Chest 2009, 135:1075-1086.
2. Stanik-Hutt JA, Soeken KL, Belcher AE, et al: Pain experiences of traumatically injured patients in a critical care setting. Am J Crit Care 2001, 10:252-259.
3. Nelson JE, Meier DE, Oei EJ, Nierman DM, Senzel RS, Manfredi PL, et al: Self-reported symptom experience of critically ill cancer patients receiving intensive care. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:277-282.
4. Puntillo KA, White C, Morris AB, Perdue ST, Stanik-Hutt J, Thompson CL, et al: Patients' perceptions and responses to procedural pain: Results from thunder project II. Am J Crit Care 2001, 10:238-251.
5. Chanques G, Sebbane M, Barbotte E, Viel E, Eledjam JJ, Jaber S: A prospective study of pain at rest: Incidence and characteristics of an unrecognized symptom in surgical and trauma versus medical intensive care unit patients. Anesthesiology 2007, 107:858-860.
6. Gelinas C, Fillion L, Puntillo KA, Viens C, Fortier M: Validation of the critical-care pain observation tool in adult patients. Am J Crit Care 2006, 15:420-427.
7. Payen JF, Bru O, Bosson JL, Lagrasta A, Novel E, Deschaux I, et al: Assessing pain in critically ill sedated patients by using a behavioral pain scale. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:2258-2263.
8. Gelinas C: Management of pain in cardiac surgery ICU patients: Have we improved over time? Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2007, 23:298-303.
9. Schelling G, Stoll C, Haller M, Briegel J, Manert W, Hummel T, et al: Health-related quality of life and posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:651-659.
10. Katz J, Seltzer Z: Transition from acute to chronic postsurgical pain: risk factors and protective factors. Exp Rev Neurother 2009, 5:723-744.
11. Dowdy DW, Eid MP, Sedrakyan A, Mendez-Tellez PA, Pronovost PJ, et al: Quality of life in adult survivors of critical illness: A systematic review of the literature. Intensive Care Med 2005, 31:611-620.
12. Dowdy DW, Eid MP, Dennison CR, Mendez-Tellez PA, Herridge MS, Guallar E, Pronovost PJ, Needham DM: Quality of life after acute respiratory distress syndrome: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med 2006, 32:1115-1124.
13. Der Schaaf M, Beelen A, Dongelmans D, Vroom M, Nollet F: Poor functional recovery after critical illness.A longitudinal study. J Rehab Med 2009, 41:1041-1048.
14. Pavoni V, Gianesello L, Paparella L, Buoninsegni LT, Barboni E: Outcome predictors and quality of life of severe burn patients admitted to intensive care unit. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2010, 18:24-32.
15. Zimmer A, Rothaug J, Mescha S, Reinhart K, Meissner W, Marx G: Chronic pain after surviving sepsis. Crit Care 2006, 10(Suppl 1):P421.
16. Jose GM H, Spronk PE, van Stel HF, Schrijvers GJP, Rommes JH, Jan Bakker J: The impact of critical illness on perceived health-related quality of life during ICU treatment, hospital stay, and after hospital discharge: a long-term follow-up study. Chest 2008, 133:377-385.
17. Jacodic HK, Jakodic K, Podbregar M: Long-term outcome and quality of life of patients treated in a surgical intensive care: a comparison between sepsis and trauma. Crit Care 2006, 10:R134.
18. Cuthbertson BH, Roughton S, Jenkinson D, MacLennan G, Vale L: Quality of life in the five years after intensive care: a cohort study. Crit Care 2010, 14:R6.
19. Timmers TK, Verhofstad MH, Moons KG, van Beeck EF, Leenen LP: Long-term quality of life after surgical intensive care admission. Arch Surg 2011, 146:412-418.
20. International Association for the Study of Pain Taxonomy; http://www.iasp.pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Pain_Definitions.
21. Acute Pain Management Guideline P: Acute Pain Management: Operative or Medical Procedures and Trauma. Clinical Practice Guideline. AHCPR Pub. No. 92-0032. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1992.
22. Dubner R: The neurobiology of persistent pain and its clinical implications. Suppl Clin Neurophysiol 2004, 57:3-7.
23. Ji RR, Kohno T, Moore KA, Woolf CJ: Central sensitization and LTP: Do pain and memory share similar mechanisms? Trends Neurosci 2003, 26:696-705.
24. Woolf CJ, Salter MW: Neuronal plasticity: Increasing the gain in pain. Science (New York) 2000, 288:1765-1769.
25. Woolf CJ, Ma Q: Nociceptors-noxious stimulus detectors. Neuron 2007, 55:353-364.
26. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, Matte-Martyn A, Diaz-Granados N, Al-Saidi F, Cooper AB, Guest CB, Mazer CD, Mehta S, Stewart TE, Barr A, Cook D, Slutsky AS: Oneyear outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:683-693.
27. Kehlet H, Rathmell JP: Persistent postsurgical pain: the path forward through better design of clinical studies. Anesthesiology 2010, 112:514-515.
28. Mosby: Mosby's Medical Dictionary. 8th edition. US: Elsevier; 2009.
29. Merriam-Webster A: Encyclopaedia Britannica online; http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary.
30. Millan MJ: Descending control of pain. Prog Neurobiol 2002, 66:355-474.
31. The Free Dictionary.: Farlex, Inc; 2012. http://www.thefreedictionary.com.
32. Basbaum AI, Bautista DM, Scherrer G, Julius D: Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell 2009, 139:267-284.
33. Hughes JR: Post-tetanic potentiation. Physiol Rev 1958, 38:91-113.
34. Latremoliere A, Woolf CJ: Central sensitization: A generator of pain hypersensitivity by central neural plasticity. J Pain 2009, 10:895-926.
35. Macrae WA, Davies HTO: Chronic postsurgical pain. In Epidemiology of Pain. Edited by Crombie IK. Seattle: IASP Press; 1999:125-142.
36. Sandkuhler J: Models and mechanisms of hyperalgesia and allodynia. Physiol Rev 2009, 89:707-758.
37. Lee M, Silverman S, Hansen H, Patel V, Manchikanti L: A comprehensive review of opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Pain Physician 2011, 14:145-161.
38. Bausbaum AI, Jessell T: The perception of pain. In Principles of Neuroscience. Edited by Kandel ER, Schwartz J, Jessell T. New York: Appleton and Lange; 2000:472-491.
39. Meyer RA: Mechanisms of neuropathic pain. Neuron 2006, 52:77-92.
40. McMahon SB, Bennett DLH, Bevan S: Inflammatory mediators and modulators of pain. In Wall and Melzack's Textbook of Pain. Edited by McMahon SB, Koltzenburg M. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2008:49-72.
41. Ritner HL, Machelska H, Stein C: Immune system pain and analgesia. In Science of Pain. Edited by Bausbaum AI, Bushnell M. Oxford, England: Academic Press; 2009:407-427.
42. Lindenlaub T, Teuteberg P, Hartung T, Sommer C: Effects of neutralizing antibodies to TNF-alpha on pain-related behavior and nerve regeneration in mice with chronic constriction injury. Brain Res 2000, 866:15-22.
43. Schafers M, Brinkhoff J, Neukirchen S, Marziniak M, Sommer C: Combined epineurial therapy with neutralizing antibodies to tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 receptor has an additive effect in reducing neuropathic pain in mice. Neurosci Lett 2001, 310:113-116.
44. Sommer C, Petrausch S, Lindenlaub T, Toyka KV: Neutralizing antibodies to interleukin 1-receptor reduce pain associated behavior in mice with experimental neuropathy. Neurosci Lett 1999, 270:25-28.
45. Twining CM, Sloane EM, Milligan ED, Chacur M, Martin D, Poole S, Marsh H, Maier SF, Watkins LR: Peri-sciatic proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species, and complement induce mirror-image neuropathic pain in rats. Pain 2004, 110:299-309.
46. Cui JG, Holmin S, Mathiesen T, Meyerson BA, Linderoth B: Possible role of inflammatory mediators in tactile hypersensitivity in rat models of mononeuropathy. Pain 2000, 88:239-248.
47. Liu T, van Rooijen N, Tracey DJ: Depletion of macrophages reduces axonal degeneration and hyperalgesia following nerve injury. Pain 2000, 86:25-32.
48. Rapanos T, Murphy P, Szalai JP, Burlacoff L, Lam-McCulloch J, Kay J: Rectal indomethacin reduces postoperative pain and morphine use after cardiac surgery. Can J Anaesth 1999, 46:725-730.
49. Hynninen MS, Cheng DC, Hossain I, Carroll J, Aumbhagavan SS, Yue R, et al: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in treatment of postoperative pain after cardiac surgery. CanJ Anaesth 2000, 47:1182-1187.
50. Woolf CJ: Central sensitization: implications for the diagnosis and treatment of pain. Pain 2011, 152(3 Suppl):S2-S15.
51. Watkins LR, Maier SF: Beyond neurons: Evidence that immune and glial cells contribute to pathological pain states. Physiol Rev 2002, 82:981-1011.
52. Hu P, McLachlan EM: Macrophage and lymphocyte invasion of dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve lesions in the rat. Neuroscience 2002, 112:23-38.
53. Ohtori S, Takahashi K, Moriya H, Myers RR: TNF-alpha and TNF-alpha receptor type 1 upregulation in glia and neurons after peripheral nerve injury: studies in murine DRG and spinal cord. Spine 2004, 29:1082-1088.
54. Schafers M, Lee DH, Brors D, Yaksh TL, Sorkin LS: Increased sensitivity of injured and adjacent uninjured rat primary sensory neurons to exogenous tumor necrosis factor-alpha after spinal nerve ligation. J Neurosci 2003, 23:3028-3038.
55. Schafers M, Sorkin LS, Geis C, Shubayev VI: Spinal nerve ligation induces transient upregulation of tumor necrosis factor receptors 1 and 2 in injured and adjacent uninjured dorsal root ganglia in the rat. Neurosci Lett 2003, 347:179-182.
56. Morioka N, Inoue A, Hanada T, Kumagai K, Takeda K, Ikoma K, et al: Nitric oxide synergistically potentiates interleukin-1 beta-induced increase of cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA levels, resulting in the facilitation of substance P release from primary afferent neurons: involvement of cGMP-independent mechanisms. Neuropharmacology 2002, 43:868-876.
57. Hou L, Li W, Wang X: Mechanism of interleukin-1 beta-induced calcitonin generelated peptide production from dorsal root ganglion neurons of neonatal rats. J Neurosci Res 2003, 73:188-197.
58. Sandkuhler J: Understanding LTP in pain pathways. Mol Pain 2007, 3:9.
59. Goshgarian H: Anatomy and function of the spinal cord. In Spinal Cord Medicine: Principles and Practice. Edited by Vernon WL, Cardenas DD, Cutter NC, Frost FS, Hammond MC, Lindblom LB, Perkash I, Waters R, Woolsey RM. New York: Demos Medical Publishing; 2003:15-35.
60. Pandey CK, Bose N, Garg G, Singh N, Baronia A, Agarwal A, et al: Gabapentin for the treatment of pain in Guillain-Barré syndrome: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Anesth Analg 2002, 95:1719-1723.
61. Pandey CK, Raza M, Tripathi M, Navkar DV, Kumar A, Singh UK: The comparative evaluation of gabapentin and carbamazepine for pain management in Guillain-Barrésyndrome patients in the intensive care unit. Anesth Analg 2005, 101:220-225.
62. Pandey CK, Singhal V, Kumar A, Lakra A, Ranjan R, Pal R, Raza M, Singh UK, Singh PK: Gabapentin provides effective postoperative analgesia whether administered preemptively or post-incision. Can J Anesth 2005, 52:827-831.
63. Joly V, Richebe R, Guignard B, Fletcher D, Maurette P, Sessler DI, et al: Remifentanilinduced postoperative hyperalgesia and its prevention with small-dose ketamine. Anesthesiology 2005, 103:147-155.
64. Luo C, Seeburg PH, Sprengel R, Kuner R: Activity-dependent potentiation of calcium signals in spinal sensory networks in inflammatory pain states. Pain 2008, 140:358-367.
65. Woolf CJ: Windup and central sensitization are not equivalent. Pain 1996, 66:105-108.
66. Neumann S, Doubell TP, Leslie T, Woolf CJ: Inflammatory pain hypersensitivity mediated by phenotypic switch in myelinated primary sensory neurons. Nature 1996, 384:360-364.
67. Cherubini E, Conti F: Generating diversity at GABAergic synapses. Trends Neurosci 2001, 24:155-162.
68. Lee JW, Siegel SM, Oaklander AL: Effects of distal nerve injuries on dorsal-horn neurons and glia: Relationships between lesion size and mechanical hyperalgesia. Neuroscience 2009, 158:904-914.
69. Mattia C, Savoia G, Paoletti F, Piazza O, Albanese D, Amantea B, et al: SIAARTI recommendations for analgo-sedation in intensive care unit. Minerva Anestesiol 2006, 72:769-805.
70. Porreca F, Ossipov MH, Gebhart GF: Chronic pain and medullary descending facilitation. Trends Neurosci 2002, 25:319-325.
71. Urban MO, Gebhart GF: Supraspinal contributions to hyperalgesia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999, 96:7687-7692.
72. Watkins LR, Maier SF: Implications of immune-to-brain communication for sickness and pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999, 96:7710-7713.
73. Chanques G, Sebbane M, Constantin JM, Ramillon N, Jung B, Cisse M, Lefrant JY, Jader S: Analgesic efficacy and haemodynamic effects of nefopam in critically ill patients. Br J Anaesth 2011, 106:336-343.
74. Fields HL, Heinricher MM: Anatomy and physiology of a nociceptive modulatory system. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1985, 308:361-374.
75. Porreca F, Burgess SE, Gardell LR, Vanderah TW, Malan TP Jr, Ossipov MH, et al: Inhibition of neuropathic pain by selective ablation of brainstem medullary cells expressing the mu-opioid receptor. J Neurosci 2001, 21:5281-5288.
76. Wiertelak EP, Smith KP, Furness L, Mooney-Heiberger K, Mayr T, Maier SF, et al: Acute and conditioned hyperalgesic responses to illness. Pain 1994, 56:227-234.
77. Fu KY, Light AR, Maixner W: Relationship between nociceptor activity, peripheral edema, spinal microglial activation and long-term hyperalgesia induced by formalin. Neuroscience 2000, 101:1127-1135.
78. Meller ST, Dykstra C, Grzybycki D, Murphy S, Gebhart GF: The possible role of glia in nociceptive processing and hyperalgesia in the spinal cord of the rat. Neuropharmacology 1994, 33:1471-1478.
79. Milligan ED, O'Connor KA, Nguyen KT, Armstrong CB, Twining C, Gaykema RP, et al: Intrathecal HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 induces enhanced pain states mediated by spinal cord proinflammatory cytokines. J Neurosci 2001, 21:2808-2819.
80. Milligan ED, Twining C, Chacur M, Biedenkapp J, O'Connor K, Poole S, et al: Spinal glia and proinflammatory cytokines mediate mirror-image neuropathic pain in rats. J Neurosci 2003, 23:1026-1040.
81. Raghavendra V, Tanga F, DeLeo JA: Inhibition of microglial activation attenuates the development but not existing hypersensitivity in a rat model of neuropathy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003, 306:624-630.
82. Sjostrand J: Neuroglial proliferation in the hypoglossal nucleus after nerve injury. Exp Neurol 1971, 30:178-189.
83. Watkins LR, Wiertelak EP, Furness LE, Maier SF: Illness-induced hyperalgesia is mediated by spinal neuropeptides and excitatory amino acids. Brain Res 1994, 664:17-24.
84. Watkins LR, Maier SF: Glia: a novel drug discovery target for clinical pain. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003, 2:973-985.
85. Ren K, Dubner R: Neuron-glia crosstalk gets serious: role in pain hypersensitivity. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008, 21:570-579.
86. Quan N, Herkenham M: Connecting cytokines and brain: a review of current issues. Histol Histopathol 2002, 17:273-288.
87. Romeo HE, Tio DL, Rahman SU, Chiappelli F, Taylor AN: The glossopharyngeal nerve as a novel pathway in immune-to-brain communication: Relevance to neuroimmune surveillance of the oral cavity. J Neuroimmunol 2001, 115:91-100.
88. Watkins LR, Maier SF, Goehler LE: Cytokine-to-brain communication: a review and analysis of alternative mechanisms. Life Sci 1995, 57:1011-1026.
89. Constandil L, Hernandez A, Pelissier T, Arriagada O, Espinoza K, Burgos H, et al: Effect of interleukin-1beta on spinal cord nociceptive transmission of normal and monoarthritic rats after disruption of glial function. Arthritis Res Ther 2009, 11:R105.
90. Reeve AJ, Patel S, Fox A, Walker K, Urban L: Intrathecally administered endotoxin or cytokines produce allodynia, hyperalgesia and changes in spinal cord neuronal responses to nociceptive stimuli in the rat. Eur JPain (London, Engl) 2000, 4:247-257.
91. Watkins LR, Maier SF: Immune regulation of central nervous system functions: From sickness responses to pathological pain. J Intern Med 2005, 257:139-155.
92. Chacur M, Gutierrez JM, Milligan ED, Wieseler-Frank J, Britto LR, Maier SF, et al: Snake venom components enhance pain upon subcutaneous injection: an initial examination of spinal cord mediators. Pain 2004, 111:65-76.
93. Watkins LR, Martin D, Ulrich P, Tracey KJ, Maier SF: Evidence for the involvement of spinal cord glia in subcutaneous formalin induced hyperalgesia in the rat. Pain 1997, 71:225-235.
94. Ledeboer A, Sloane EM, Milligan ED, Frank MG, Mahony JH, Maier SF, et al: Minocycline attenuates mechanical allodynia and proinflammatory cytokine expression in rat models of pain facilitation. Pain 2005, 115:71-83.
95. Price DD: Psychological and neural mechanisms of the affective dimension of pain. Science (New York) 2000, 288:1769-1772.
96. Melzack R, Casey KL: Sensory, motivational, and central control determinants of pain: a new conceptual model. In Skin Senses. Edited by Kenshalo DR. Springfield, IL: Thomas C; 1968:423-439.
97. Craig AD: Interoception: The sense of the physiological condition of the body. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2003, 13:500-505.
98. Friedman DP, Murray EA, O'Neill JB, Mishkin M: Cortical connections of the somatosensory fields of the lateral sulcus of macaques: Evidence for a corticolimbic pathway for touch. J Comp Neurol 1986, 252:323-347.
99. Apkarian AV, Bushnell MC, Treede RD, Zubieta JK: Human brain mechanisms of pain perception and regulation in health and disease. Eur JPain (London, Engl) 2005, 9:463-484.
100. Rhudy JL, Williams AE, McCabe KM, Russell JL, Maynard LJ: Emotional control of nociceptive reactions (ECON): Do affective valence and arousal play a role? Pain 2008, 136:250-261.
101. Seminowicz DA, Mikulis DJ, Davis KD: Cognitive modulation of pain-related brain responses depends on behavioral strategy. Pain 2004, 112:48-58.
102. Mesulam MM, Mufson EJ: Insula of the old world monkey. III: Efferent cortical output and comments on function. J Comp Neurol 1982, 212:38-52.
103. Zhang L, Zhang Y, Zhao ZQ: Anterior cingulate cortex contributes to the descending facilitatory modulation of pain via dorsal reticular nucleus. Eur J Neurosci 2005, 22:1141-1148.
104. Chapman CR, Davis J, Donaldson GW, Naylor J, Winchester D: Postoperative pain trajectories in chronic pain patients undergoing surgery: the effects of chronic opioid pharmacotherapy on acute pain. J Pain 2011, 12:1240-1246.
105. Tanji J, Hoshi E: Behavioral planning in the prefrontal cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2001, 11:164-170.
106. Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Anderson SW: Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 1998, 18:428-437.
107. Daw ND, O'Doherty JP, Dayan P, Seymour B, Dolan RJ: Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature 2006, 441:876-879.
108. Quadflieg S, Mohr A, Mentzel HJ, Miltner WH, Straube T: Modulation of the neural network involved in the processing of anger prosody: the role of task-relevance and social phobia. Biol Psychol 2008, 78:129-137.
109. Apkarian AV: Pain perception in relation to emotional learning. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2008, 18:464-468.
110. Brosschot JF, Gerin W, Thayer JF: The perseverative cognition hypothesis: a review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. J Psychosom Res 2006, 60:113-124.
111. Siffleet J, Young J, Nikoletti S, Shaw T: Patients' self-report of procedural pain in the intensive care unit. J Clin Nurs 2007, 16:2142-2148.
112. Young J, Siffleet J, Nikoletti S, Shaw T: Use of a behavioural pain scale to assess pain in ventilated, unconscious and/or sedated patients. Intensive Crit Care Nurs 2006, 22:32-39.
113. Neugebauer V, Li W, Bird GC, Han JS: The amygdala and persistent pain. Neuroscientist 2004, 10:221-234.
114. Zhuo M: A synaptic model for pain: long-term potentiation in the anterior cingulate cortex. Mol Cells 2007, 23:259-271.
115. Izard CE: Emotion theory and research: highlights, unanswered questions, and emerging issues. Annu Rev Psychol 2009, 60:1-25.