Maternal thyroid function during pregnancy: Effects on the developing fetal brain

Maternal Influences on Fetal Neurodevelopment: Clinical and Research Aspects

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 55-77

  Rovet, Joanne F ^a   Willoughby, Karen A ^b  

^a HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Cognitive development; Hypothyroxinemia; Maternal hypo thyroidism; Pregnancy; Prenatal brain development; Thyroid development; Thyroid hormone

Indexed keywords

EID: 84864627354     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-60327-921-5_5     Document Type: Chapter

References (150)

1. Bernal J, Nunez J (1995) Thyroid hormones and brain development. Eur J Endocrinol 133:390-398.
2. Koibuchi N, Chin WW (2000) Thyroid hormone action and brain development. Trends Endocrinol Metab 11:123-128.
3. Anderson GW (2001) Thyroid hormones and the brain. Front Neuroendocrinol 22:1-17.
4. Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Allan WC, Williams JR, Knight GJ, Gagnon J, O'Heir CE, Mitchell ML, Hermos RJ, Waisbren SE, Faix JD, Klein RZ (1999) Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Engl J Med 341:549-555.
5. Pop VJ, Kuijpens JL, van Baar AL, Verkerk G, van Son MM, de Vijlder JJ, Vulsma T, Wiersinga WM, Drexhage HA, Vader HL (1999) Low maternal free thyroxine concentrations during early pregnancy are associated with impaired psychomotor development in infancy. Clin Endocrinol 50:149-155.
6. Bettendorf M (2002) Thyroid disorders in children from birth to adolescence. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 29:S429-S446.
7. de Morreale Escobar G, Obregón MJ, del Escobar Rey F (2004) Maternal thyroid hormones early in pregnancy and fetal brain development. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 18:225-248.
8. Calvo RM, Jauniaux E, Gulbis B, Asuncion M, Gervy C, Contempré B, de Morreale Escobar G (2002) Fetal tissues are exposed to biologically relevant free thyroxine concentrations during early phases of development. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:1768-1777.
9. de Morreale Escobar G (2001) The role of thyroid hormone in fetal neurodevelopment. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 14:1453-1462.
10. Anderson GW, Schoonover CM, Jones SA (2003) Control of thyroid hormone action in the developing rat brain. Thyroid 13:1039-1056.
11. Burrow GN, Fisher DA, Larsen PR (1994) Maternal and fetal thyroid function. N Engl J Med 331:1072-1078.
12. Vulsma T, Gons MH, de Vijlder JJ (1989) Maternal-fetal transfer of thyroxine in congenital hypothyroidism due to a total organification defect or thyroid agenesis. N Engl J Med 321:13-16.
13. Oppenheimer JH, Schwartz HL (1997) Molecular basis of thyroid hormone-dependent brain development. Endocr Rev 18:462-475.
14. Costa A, Arisio R, Benedetto C, Bertino E, Fabris C, Giraudi G, Marozio L, Maulà V, Pagliano M, Testori O, Zoppetti G (1991) Thyroid hormones in tissues from human embryos and fetuses. J Endocrinol Invest 14:559-568.
15. Contempré B, Jauniaux E, Calvo R, Jurkovic D, Campbell S, de Morreale Escobar G (1993) Detection of thyroid hormones in human embryonic cavities during the first trimester of pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1719-1722.
16. Kilby MD, Verhaeg J, Gittoes N, Somerset DA, Clark PMS, Franklyn JA (1998) Circulating thyroid hormone concentrations and placental thyroid hormone receptor expression in normal human pregnancy and pregnancy complicated by intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:2964-2971.
17. Thorpe-Beeston JG, Nicolaides KH, Felton C V, Butler J, McGregor AM (1991) Maturation of the secretion of thyroid hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormone in the fetus. N Engl J Med 324:532-536.
18. Blazer S, Moreh-Waterman M, Miller-Lotan R, Tamir A, Hochberg Z (2003) Maternal hypo-thyroidism may affect fetal growth and neonatal thyroid function. Obstet Gynecol 102:232-241.
19. Klein RZ, Mitchell ML (2002) Maternal hypothyroidism and cognitive development of the offspring. Curr Opin Pediatr 14:443-446.
20. de Morreale Escobar G, Obregón MJ, del Escobar Rey F (2000) Is neurodevelopment related to maternal hypothyroidism or to maternal hypothyroxinemia? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:3975-3987.
21. Casey BM, Dashe JS, Wells CE, McIntire DD, Byrd W, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG (2005) Subclinical hypothyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 105:239-245.
22. Leung AS, Millar LK, Koonings PP, Montoro M, Mestman JH (1993) Perinatal outcome in hypothyroid pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 81:349-353.
23. Stagnaro-Green A, Chen X, Bogden JD, Davies TF, Scholl TO (2005) The thyroid and pregnancy: a novel risk factor for very preterm delivery. Thyroid 15:351-357.
24. Howdeshell KL (2002) A model of the development of the brain as a construct of the thyroid system. Environ Health Perspect 110:337-348.
25. Williams GR (2008) Neurodevelopmental and neurophysiological actions of thyroid hormone. J Neuroendocrinol 20:784-794.
26. Zimmermann MB (2009) Iodine deficiency. Endocr Rev 30:376-408.
27. Surks MI, Schadlow AR, Stock JM, Oppenheimer JH (1973) Determination of iodothyro-nine absorption and conversion of L-thyroxine (T4) to L-triiodothyronine (T3) using turnover rate techniques. J Clin Invest 52:805-811.
28. Flamant F, Samarut J (2003) Thyroid hormone receptors: lessons from knockout and knock-in mutant mice. Trends Endocrinol Metab 14:85-90.
29. Larson PR, Silva JE, Kaplan MM (1981) Relationships between circulating and intracellular thyroid hormones: physiological and clinical implications. Endocr Rev 2:87-102.
30. Kester MH, de Martinez Mena R, Obregon MJ, Marinkovic D, Howatson A, Visser TJ, Hume R, de Morreale Escobar G (2004) Iodothyronine levels in the human developing brain: major regulatory roles of iodothyronine deiodinases in different areas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89:3117-3128.
31. Bianco AC, Salvatore D, Gereben B, Berry MJ, Larsen PR (2002) Biochemistry, cellular and molecular biology, and physiological roles of the iodothyronine selenodeiodinases. Endocr Rev 23:38-89.
32. Bernal J (2007) Thyroid hormone receptors in brain development and function. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 3:249-259.
33. Daras VM, Hume R, Visser TJ (1999) Regulation of thyroid hormone metabolism during fetal development. Mol Cell Endocrinol 151:37-47.
34. Leonard JL, Köhrle J (1996) Intracellular pathways of iodothyronine metabolism. In: Braverman LE, Utiger RD (eds) The thyroid. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, pp 125-161.
35. Guadaño-Ferraz A, Escámez MJ, Rausell E, Bernal J (1999) Expression of type 2 iodothy-ronine deiodinase in hypothyroid rat brain indicates an important role of thyroid hormone in the development of specific primary sensory systems. J Neurosci 19:3430-3439.
36. Bernal J (2005) Thyroid hormones and brain development. Vitam Horm 71:95-122.
37. Morte B, Manzano J, Scanlan T, Vennström B, Bernal J (2002) Deletion of the thyroid hormone receptor alpha 1 prevents the structural alterations of the cerebellum induced by hypo-thyroidism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:3985-3989.
38. Chan S Y, Vasilopoulou E, Kilby MD (2009) The role of the placenta in thyroid hormone delivery to the fetus. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 5:45-54.
39. Glinoer D (1997) The regulation of thyroid function in pregnancy: pathways of endocrine adaptation from physiology to pathology. Endocr Rev 18:404-433.
40. Shan ZY, Chen YY, Teng WP, Yu XH, Li CY, Zhou WW, Gao B, Zhou JR, Ding B, Ma Y, Wu Y, Liu Q, Xu H, Liu W, Li J, Wang WW, Li YB, Fan CL, Wang H, Guo R, Zhang HM (2009) A study for maternal thyroid hormone deficiency during the first half of pregnancy in China. Eur J Clin Invest 39:37-42.
41. Glinoer D (2004) The regulation of thyroid function during normal pregnancy: importance of the iodine nutrition status. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 18:133-152.
42. Ausó E, Lavado-Autric R, Cuevas E, del Escobar Rey F, de Morreale Escobar G, Berbel P (2004) A moderate and transient deficiency of maternal thyroid function at the beginning of fetal neocorticogenesis alters neuronal migration. Endocrinology 145:4037-4047.
43. Santini F, Chiovato L, Ghirri P, Lapi P, Mammoli C, Montanelli L, Scartabelli G, Ceccarini G, Coccoli L, Chopra IJ, Boldrini A, Pinchera A (1999) Serum iodothyronines in the human fetus and the newborn: evidence for an important role of placenta in fetal thyroid hormone homeostasis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:493-498.
44. Bernal J, Pekonen F (1984) Ontogenesis of the nuclear 3, 5, 3¢-triiodothyronine receptor in the human fetal brain. Endocrinology 114:677-679.
45. Ferreiro B, Bernal J, Goodyer CG, Branchard CL (1988) Estimation of nuclear thyroid hormone receptor saturation in human fetal brain and lung during early gestation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 67:853-856.
46. Dowling AL, Martz GU, Leonard JL, Zoeller RT (2000) Acute changes in maternal thyroid hormone induce rapid and transient changes in gene expression in fetal rat brain. J Neurosci 20:2255-2265.
47. Chan S, Rovet J (2003) Thyroid hormones in fetal central nervous system development. Fetal Matern Med Rev 13:177-208.
48. Alexander EK, Marqusee E, Lawrence J, Jarolim P, Fischer GA, Larsen PR (2004) Timing and magnitude of increases in levothyroxine requirements during pregnancy in women with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 351:241-249.
49. Glinoer D, Delange F (2000) The potential repercussions of maternal, fetal, and neonatal hypothyroxinemia on the progeny. Thyroid 10:871-887.
50. Casey BM (2006) Subclinical hypothyroidism and pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv 61:415-420.
51. Allan WC, Haddow JE, Palomaki GE, Williams JR, Mitchell ML, Hermos RJ, Faix JD, Klein RZ (2000) Maternal thyroid deficiency and pregnancy complications: implications for population screening. J Med Screen 7:127-130.
52. Pop VJ, Brouwers EP, Vader HL, Vulsma T, van Baar AL, de Vijlder JJ (2003) Maternal hypothyroxinaemia during early pregnancy and subsequent child development: a 3-year follow-up study. Clin Endocrinol 59:282-288.
53. Glinoer D (1998) The systematic screening and management of hypothyroidism and hyper-thyroidism during pregnancy. Trends Endocrinol Metab 9:403-411.
54. Abalovich M, Amino N, Barbour LA, Cobin RH, de Groot LJ, Glinoer D, Mandel SJ, Stagnaro-Green A (2007) Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and post-partum: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92:S1-S47.
55. Kamijo K, Saito T, Sato M, Yachi A, Mukai A, Fukusi M et al (1990) Transient subclincial hypothyroidism in early pregnancy. Endocrinol Jpn 37:397-403.
56. Utiger RD (1999) Maternal hypothyroidism and fetal development. N Engl J Med 341:601-602.
57. Klein RZ, Sargent JD, Larsen PR, Waisbren SE, Haddow JE, Mitchell ML (2001) Relation of severity of maternal hypothyroidism to cognitive development of offspring. J Med Screen 8:18-20.
58. Panesar NS, Li C Y, Rogers MS (2001) Reference intervals for thyroid hormones in pregnant Chinese women. Ann Clin Biochem 38:329-332.
59. Mandel SJ (2004) Hypothyroidism and chronic autoimmune thyroiditis in the pregnant state: maternal aspects. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 18:213-224.
60. Soldin OP, Tractenberg RE, Hollowell JG, Jonklaas J, Janicic N, Soldin SJ (2004) Trimester-specific changes in maternal thyroid hormone, thyrotropin, and thyroglobulin concentrations during gestation: trends and associations across trimesters in iodine sufficiency. Thyroid 14:1084-1090.
61. Becker DV, Bigos ST, Gaitan E, Morris JC, Rallison ML, Spencer CA, Sugawara M, Van Middlesworth L, Wartofsky L (1993) Optimal use of blood tests for assessment of thyroid function. JAMA 269:2736-2737.
62. Ladenson PW, Singer PA, Ain KB, Bagchi N, Bigos ST, Levy EG, Smith SA, Daniels GH, Cohen HD (2000) American thyroid association guidelines for detection of thyroid dysfunction. Arch Intern Med 160:1573-1575.
63. Davis LE, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG (1988) Hypothyroidism complicating pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 72:108-112.
64. Idris I, Srinivasan R, Simm A, Page RC (2005) Maternal hypothyroidism in early and late gestation: effects on neonatal and obstetric outcome. Clin Endocrinol 63:560-565.
65. Klein RZ, Haddow JE, Faix JD, Brown RS, Hermos RJ, Pulkkinen A, Mitchell ML (1991) Prevalence of thyroid deficiency in pregnant women. Clin Endocrinol 35:41-46.
66. Lazarus JH (2002) Epidemiology and prevention of thyroid disease in pregnancy. Thyroid 12:861-865.
67. Woeber KA (1997) Subclinical thyroid dysfunction. Arch Intern Med 157:1065-1068.
68. Oken E, Braverman LE, Platek D, Mitchell ML, Lee SL, Pearce EN (2009) Neonatal thyroxine, maternal thyroid function, and child cognition. J Clin Endocrinol Metal 94:497-503.
69. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, Hannon WH, Gunter EW, Spencer CA, Braverman LE, Serum TSH (2002) T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87:489-499.
70. Leung AM, Pearce EN, Braverman LE (2009) Iodine content of prenatal multivitamins in the United States. N Engl J Med 360:939-940.
71. Becker DV, Braverman LE, Delange F, Franklyn JA, Hollowell JG, Lamm SH, Mitchell ML, Pearce E, Robbins J, Rovet J (2006) Iodine supplementation for pregnancy and lactation-United States and Canada: recommendations of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 16:949-951.
72. Gillam MP, Kopp P (2001) Genetic regulation of thyroid development. Curr Opin Pediatr 13:358-363.
73. Thorpe-Beeston JG, Nicolaides KH, McGregor AM (1992) Fetal thyroid function. Thyroid 2:207-217.
74. van Wassenaer AG, Kok JH (2004) Hypothyroxinaemia and thyroid function after preterm birth. Semin Neonatol 9:3-11.
75. Ballabio M, Nicolini U, Jowett T, Ruiz de Elvira MC, Ekins RP, Rodeck CH (1989) Maturation of thyroid function in normal human foetuses. Clin Endocrinol 31:565-571.
76. Kilby MD, Gittoes N, McCabe C, Verhaeg J, Franklyn JA (2000) Expression of thyroid receptor isoforms in the human fetal central nervous system and the effects of intrauterine growth restriction. Clin Endocrinol 53:469-477.
77. Chan S, Kachilele S, McCabe CJ, Tannahill LA, Boelaert K, Gittoes NJ, Visser TJ, Franklyn JA, Kilby MD (2002) Early expression of thyroid hormone deoidinases and receptors in human fetal cerebral cortex. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 138:109-116.
78. Hosoda R, Nakayama K, Kato-Negishi M, Kawahara M, Muramoto K, Kuroda Y (2003) Thyroid hormone enhances the formation of synapses between cultured neurons of rat cerebral cortex. Cell Mol Neurobiol 23:895-906.
79. Obregón MJ, Calvo RM, Del Rey FE, de Escobar GM (2007) Ontogenesis of thyroid function and interactions with maternal function. Endocr Dev 10:86-89.
80. Zoeller RT, Rovet J (2004) Timing of thyroid hormone action in the developing brain: clinical observations and experimental findings. J Neuroendocrinol 16:809-818.
81. Lavado-Autric R, Ausó E, García-Velasco JV, Arufe Mdel C, del Escobar Rey F, Berbel P, de Morreale Escobar G (2003) Early maternal hypothyroxinemia alters histogenesis and cerebral cortex cytoarchitecture of the progeny. J Clin Invest 111:954-957.
82. Cuevas E, Ausó E, Telefont M, de Morreale Escobar G, Sotelo C, Berbel P (2005) Transient maternal hypothyroxinemia at onset of corticogenesis alters tangential migration of medial ganglionic eminence-derived neurons. Eur J Neurosci 22:541-551.
83. Goodman JH, Gilbert ME (2007) Modest thyroid hormone insufficiency during development induces a cellular malformation in the corpus callosum: a model of cortical dysplasia. Endocrinology 148:2593-2597.
84. Porterfield SP, Hendrich CE (1993) The role of thyroid hormones in prenatal and neonatal neurological development-current perspectives. Endocr Rev 14:94-106.
85. Chan S, Kilby MD (2000) Thyroid hormone and central nervous system development. J Endocrinol 165:1-8.
86. Sui L, Gilbert ME (2003) Pre-and postnatal propylthiouracil-induced hypothyroidism impairs synaptic transmission and plasticity in area CA1 of the neonatal rat hippocampus. Endocrinology 144:4195-4203.
87. Evans IM, Sinha AK, Pickard MR, Edwards PR, Leonard AJ, Ekins RP (1999) Maternal hypothyroxinemia disrupts neurotransmitter metabolic enzymes in developing brain. J Endocrinol 161:273-279.
88. Vara H, Martínez B, Santos A, Colino A (2002) Thyroid hormone regulates neurotransmitter release in neonatal rat hippocampus. Neuroscience 110:19-28.
89. Fäldt R, Passant U, Nilsson K, Wattmo C, Gustafson L (1996) Prevalence of thyroid hormone abnormalities in elderly patients with symptoms of organic brain disease. Aging 8:347-353.
90. Mafrica F, Fodale V (2008) Thyroid function, Alzheimer's disease and postoperative cognitive dysfunction: a tale of dangerous liaisons? J Alzheimers Dis 14:95-105.
91. Bunevicius R (2009) Thyroid disorders in mental patients. Curr Opin Psychiatry 22:391-395.
92. Forrest D, Reh TA, Rüsch A (2002) Neurodevelopmental control by thyroid hormone receptors. Curr Opin Neurobiol 12:49-56.
93. Thompson CC, Potter GB (2000) Thyroid hormone action in neural development. Cereb Cortex 10:939-945.
94. Dugbartey AT (1998) Neurocognitive aspects of hypothyroidism. Arch Intern Med 158:1413-1418.
95. Weller A, Rozin A, Rigler O, Sack J (1996) Neurobehavioral development of neonatal rats after in-utero hypothyroxinemia: efficacy of prenatal thyroxine treatment. Early Hum Dev 46:63-76.
96. Dowling AL, Iannacone EA, Zoeller RT (2001) Maternal hypothyroidism selectively affects the expression of neuroendocrine-specific protein A messenger ribonucleic acid in the proliferative zone of the fetal rat brain cortex. Endocrinology 142:390-399.
97. Schwartz HL (1983) Effect of thyroid hormone on growth and development. In: Oppenheimer JH, Samuels HH (eds) Molecular basis of thyroid hormone action. Academic Press, New York, NY, pp 413-444.
98. Chan S Y, Franklyn JA, Kilby MD (2005) Maternal thyroid hormones and fetal brain development. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes 12:23-30.
99. Sidman RL, Rakic P (1973) Neuronal migration, with special reference to developing human brain: a review. Brain Res 101:465-470.
100. Lucio RA, García JV, Ramón Cerezo J, Pacheco P, Innocenti GM, Berbel P (1997) The development of auditory callosal connections in normal and hypothyroid rats. Cereb Cortex 7:303-316.
101. Naranyanan CH, Narayanan Y (1985) Cell formation in the motor nucleus and mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal nerve of rats made hypothyroid by propylthiouracil. Exp Brain Res 59:257-266.
102. Berbel P, Guadaño-Ferraz A, Angulo A, Ramón Cerezo J (1994) Role of thyroid hormones in the maturation of interhemispheric connections in rats. Behav Brain Res 64:9-14.
103. Gravel C, Sasseville R, Hawkes R (1990) Maturation of the corpus callosum of the rat: II. Influence of thyroid hormones on the number and maturation of axons. J Comp Neurol 291:147-161.
104. Guadaño Ferraz A, del Escobar Rey F, de Morreale Escobar G, Innocenti GM, Berbel P (1994) The development of the anterior commissure in normal and hypothyroid rats. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 81:293-308.
105. Sharlin DS, Tighe D, Gilbert ME, Zoeller RT (2008) The balance between oligodendrocyte and astrocyte production in major white matter tracts is linearly related to serum total thyroxine. Endocrinology 149:2527-2536.
106. Square LR (1992) Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychol Rev 99:195-231.
107. Jones-Gotman M, Zatorre RJ, Olivier A, Andermann F, Cendes F, Staunton H, McMackin D, Siegel AM, Wieser HG (1997) Learning and retention of words and designs following excision from medial or lateral temporal-lobe structures. Neuropsychologia 35:963-973.
108. Madeira MD, Sousa N, Lima-Andrade MT, Calheiros F, Cadete-Leite A, Paula-Barbosa MM (1992) Selective vulnerability of the hippocampal pyramidal neurons to hypothyroidism in male and female rats. J Comp Neurol 322:501-518.
109. Taylor MA, Swant J, Wagner JJ, Fisher JW, Ferguson DC (2008) Lower thyroid compensatory reserve of rat pups after maternal hypothyroidism: correlation of thyroid, hepatic, and cerebrocortical biomarkers with hippocampal neurophysiology. Endocrinology 149:3521-3530.
110. Rami A, Patel AJ, Rabié A (1986) Thyroid hormone and development of the rat hippocampus: Morphological alterations in granule and pyramidal cells. Neuroscience 19:1217-1226.
111. Gilbert ME, Paczowski C (2003) Propylthiouracil (PTU)-induced hypothyroidism in the developing rat impairs synaptic transmission and plasticity in the dentate gyrus of the adult hippocampus. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 145:19-29.
112. Opazo MC, Gianini A, Pancetti F, Azkcona G, Alarcón L, Lizana R, Noches V, Gonzalez PA, Marassi MP, Mora S, Rosenthal D, Eugenin E, Naranjo D, Bueno SM, Kalergis AM, Riedel CA (2008) Maternal hypothyroxinemia impairs spatial learning and synaptic nature and function in the offspring. Endocrinology 149:5097-5106.
113. Gilbert ME, Sui L (2006) Dose-dependent reductions in spatial learning and synaptic function in the dentate gyrus of adult rats following developmental thyroid hormone insufficiency. Brain Res 1069:10-22.
114. Heuer H, Mason CA (2003) Thyroid hormone induces cerebellar Purkinje cell dendritic development via the thyroid hormone receptor alpha1. J Neurosci 23:10604-10612.
115. Nicolson JL, Altman J (1972) The effects of early hypo-and hyperthyroidism on the development of rat cerebellar cortex. I. Cell proliferation and differentiation. Brain Res 44:13-23.
116. Nicolson JL, Altman J (1972) The effects of early hypo-and hyperthyroidism on the development of rat cerebellar cortex. II. Synaptogenesis in the molecular layer. Brain Res 44:25-36.
117. Gravel C, Hawkes R (1990) Maturation of the corpus callosum of the rat: I. Influence of thyroid hormones on the topography of callosal projections. J Comp Neurol 291:128-146.
118. Li CP, Olavarria JF, Greger BE (1995) Occipital cortico-pyramidal projection in hypothyroid rats. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 89:227-234.
119. Ruiz-Marcos A, Sanchez-Toscano F, Obregon MJ, Escobar del Rey F, Morreale de Escobar G (1982) Thyroxine treatment and recovery of hypothyroidism-induced pyramidal cell damage. Brain Res 239:559-574.
120. Fagge CH (1871) On sporadic cretinism occurring in England. Med Chir Trans 54:155.
121. Merke H (1984) History and iconography of endemic goiter and cretinism. Hans Huber, Bern.
122. Flint A (1873) The physiology of Man. D. Appleton and Company, New York.
123. McCarrison R (1917) The thyroid gland in health and disease. Balliére, Tindall & Cox, London.
124. Hunziker-Shild H (1915) Der Kropf, eine Anpassung an Jodarme Nahrung. Verlage A. Franke, Berne.
125. Fisher DA, Hobel CJ, Garza R, Pierce CA (1970) Thyroid function in the preterm fetus. Pediatrics 46:208-216.
126. Greenberg AH, Czernichow P, Reba RC, Tyson J, Blizzard RM (1970) Observations on the maturation of thyroid function in early fetal life. J Clin Invest 49:1790-1803.
127. Harington CR, Barger G (1927) Chemistry of thyroxine: constitution and synthesis of thyroxine. Biochem J 21:169-183.
128. Gross J, Pitt-Rivers R (1952) The identification of 3:5:3¢-L- triiodothyronine in human plasma. Lancet 1:439-441.
129. Choufoer JC, Vanrhihn M, Querido A (1965) Endemic goiter in western New Guinea. II. Clinical picture, incidence and pathogenesis of endemic cretinism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 25:385-402.
130. Pharoah PO, Connolly KJ, Ekins RP, Harding AG (1984) Maternal thyroid hormone levels in pregnancy and the subsequent cognitive and motor performance of the children. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 21:265-270.
131. Roti E, Gnudi A, Braverman LE (1983) The placental transport, synthesis and metabolism of hormones and drugs which affect thyroid function. Endocr Rev 4:131-149.
132. Man EB, Brown JF, Serunian SA (1991) Maternal hypothyroxinemia: psychoneurological deficits of progeny. Ann Clin Lab Sci 21:227-239.
133. Smallridge RC, Ladenson PW (2001) Hypothyroidism in pregnancy: consequences to neonatal health. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:2349-2353.
134. Wasserstrum N, Anania CA (1995) Perinatal consequences of maternal hypothyroidism in early pregnancy and inadequate replacement. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 42:353-358.
135. Casey BM, Dashe JS, Spong CY, McIntire DD, Leveno KJ, Cunningham GF (2007) Perinatal significance of isolated maternal hypothyroxinemia identified in the first half of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 109:1129-1135.
136. Negro R, Mangieri T, Coppola L, Presicce G, Casavola EC, Gismondi R, Locorotondo G, Caroli P, Pezzarossa A, Dazzi D, Hassan H (2005) Levothyroxine treatment in thyroid peroxidase antibody-positive women undergoing assisted reproduction technologies: a prospective study. Hum Reprod 20:1529-1533.
137. Dussault JH, Fisher DA (1999) Thyroid function in mothers of hypothyroid newborns. Obstet Gynecol 93:15-20.
138. Kooistra L, Crawford S, van Baar AL, Brouwers EP, Pop VJ (2006) Neonatal effects of maternal hypothyroxinemia during early pregnancy. Pediatrics 117:161-167.
139. Smit BJ, Kok JH, Vulsma T, Briët JM, Boer K, Wiersinga WM (2000) Neurologic development of the newborn and young child in relation to maternal thyroid function. Acta Paediatr 89:291-295.
140. Mirabella G, Feig D, Astzalos E, Perlman K, Rovet JF (2000) The effect of abnormal intrauterine thyroid hormone economies on infant cognitive abilities. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 13:191-194.
141. Mirabella G, Westall CA, Asztalos E, Perlman K, Koren G, Rovet J (2005) Development of contrast sensitivity in infants with prenatal and neonatal thyroid hormone insufficiencies. Pediatr Res 57:902-907.
142. Matsuura N, Konishi J (1990) Transient hypothyroidism in infants born to mothers with chronic thyroiditis-a nationwide study of twenty-three cases. The Transient Hypothyroidism Study Group. Endocrinol Jpn 37:369-379.
143. Liu H, Momotani N, Noh JY, Ishikawa N, Takebe K, Ito K (1994) Maternal hypothyroidism during early pregnancy and intellectual development of the progeny. Arch Intern Med 154:785-787.
144. Gharib H, Cobin R, Dickey R (1999) Subclinical hypothyroidism during pregnancy: position statement from the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Endocr Pract 5:367-368.
145. Vaidya B, Anthony S, Bilous M, Shields B, Drury J, Hutchison S, Bilous R (2007) Detection of thyroid dysfunction in early pregnancy: universal screening or targeted high-risk case finding? J Clin Endocrinol Met 92:203-207.
146. Lazarus JH, Premawardhana LD (2005) Screening for thyroid disease in pregnancy. J Clin Pathol 58:449-452.
147. Gyamfi C, Wapner RJ, D'Alton ME (2009) Thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy: the basic science and clinical evidence surrounding the controversy in management. Obstet Gynecol 113:702-707.
148. Vermiglio F, Lo Presti VP, Moleti M, Sidoti M, Tortorell G, Scaffidi G, Castagna MG, Mattina F, Violi MA, Crisa A, Artemisia A, Trimarchi F (2004) Attention deficit and hyper-activity disorders in the offspring of mothers exposed to mild-moderate iodine deficiency: a possible novel iodine deficiency disorder in developed countries. J Clin Endocrinol Met 89:6054-6060.
149. Román GC (2007) Autism: transient in utero hypothyroxinemia related to maternal flavonoid ingestion during pregnancy and to other environmental antithyroid agents. J Neurol Sci 262:15-26.
150. de Morreale Escobar GM, Obregón MJ, del Rey FE (2007) Iodine deficiency and brain development in the first half of pregnancy. Public Health Nutr 10:1554-1570.