Anesthesia advanced circulatory life support

Canadian Journal of Anesthesia

Volumn 59, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 586-603

  Moitra, Vivek K ^a   Gabrielli, Andrea ^b   MacCioli, Gerald A ^c   O'Connor, Michael F ^d  

^a Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^c MEDNAX   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANAPHYLAXIS; ANESTHESIA; ANESTHESIA COMPLICATION; ANESTHESIOLOGICAL PROCEDURE; ARTICLE; BRADYCARDIA; CENTRAL VENOUS CATHETERIZATION; GAS EMBOLISM; HEART ARREST; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HEART RIGHT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HEART VENTRICLE FIBRILLATION; HEART VENTRICLE TACHYCARDIA; HUMAN; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPOVOLEMIA; LOCAL ANESTHESIA; LUNG VENTILATION; MALIGNANT HYPERTHERMIA; NEURAXIAL ANESTHESIA; OPERATING ROOM; PATIENT CARE; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULSE PRESSURE; RESUSCITATION; SHOCK; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; TORSADE DES POINTES;

ADVANCED CARDIAC LIFE SUPPORT; ALGORITHMS; ANESTHESIA; CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HEART ARREST; HUMANS; INTRAOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 84864566613     PISSN: 0832610X     EISSN: 14968975     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12630-012-9699-3     Document Type: Article

References (132)

1. American heart association guidelines for cardiopulmo-nary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science. Part 5: Adult basic life support. Circulation 2010; 122: S685-705.
2. American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmo-nary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science. Part 6: Automated external defibrillators, defibrillation, cardioversion, and pacing. Circulation 2010; 122: S706-19.
3. American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmo-nary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Part 8: Adult advanced cardiovascular life support. Circulation 2010; 122: S729-67.
4. Newland MC, Ellis SJ, Lydiatt CA, et al. Anesthesia-related cardiac arrest and its mortality: a report covering 72, 959 anesthetics over 10 years from a US teaching hospital. Anes-thesiology 2002; 97: 108-15.
5. Braz LG, Modolo NSP, do Nascimento P, et al. Perioperative cardiac arrest: a study of 53 718 anaesthetics over 9 yr from a Brazilian teaching hospital. Br. J Anesth 2006; 96: 569-75.
6. Biboulet P, Aubas P, Dubourdieu J, Rubenovitch J, Capdevila X, d'Athis F. Fatal and non-fatal cardiac arrests related to anesthesia. Can J Anesth 2001; 48: 326-32.
7. Cheney FW, Posner KL, Lee LA, Caplan RA, Domino KB. Trends in anesthesia-related death and brain damage: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 2006; 105: 1081-6.
8. Pollard JB. Cardiac arrest during spinal anesthesia: Common mechanisms and strategies for prevention. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 252-6.
9. Kopp SL, Horlocker TT, Warner ME, et al. Cardiac arrest during neuraxial anesthesia: frequency and predisposing factors associated with survival. Anesth Analg 2005; 100: 855-65.
10. Runciman WB, Morris RW, Watterson LM, Williamson JA, Paix AD. Crisis management during anaesthesia: cardiac arrest. Qual Saf Health Care 2005; 14: e14.
11. Li G, Warner M, Lang BH, Huang L, Sun LS. Epidemiology of anesthesia-related mortality in the United States, 1999-2005. Anesthesiology 2009; 110: 759-65.
12. Auroy Y, Narchi P, Messiah A, Litt L, Rouvier B, Samii K. Serious complications related to regional anesthesia: results of a prospective survey in France. Anesthesiology 1997; 87: 479-86.
13. Auroy Y, Benhamou D, Bargues L, et al. Major complications of regional anesthesia in France: the SOS Regional Anesthesia Hotline Service. Anesthesiology 2002; 97: 1274-80.
14. Sprung J, Warner ME, Contreras MG, et al. Predictors of survival following cardiac arrest in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a study of 518, 294 patients at a tertiary referral center. Anesthesiology 2003; 99: 259-69.
15. Liu SS, McDonald SB. Current issues in spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 2001; 94: 888-906.
16. Bainbridge FA. The influence of venous filling upon the rate of the heart. J Physiol (Lond) 1915; 50: 65-84.
17. Hainsworth R. Reflexes from the heart. Phys Rev 1991; 71: 617-58.
18. Hogan QH, Stadnicka A, Stekiel TA, Bosnjak ZJ, Kampine JP. Effects of epidural and systemic lidocaine on sympathetic activity and mesenteric circulation in rabbits. Anesthesiology 1993; 79: 1250-60.
19. Carpenter RL, Caplan RA, Brown DL, Stephenson C, Wu R. Incidence and risk factors for side effects of spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology 1992; 76: 906-16.
20. Campagna JA, Carter C. Clinical relevance of the Bezold-Jar-isch reflex. Anesthesiology 2003; 98: 1250-60.
21. Rosenberg JM, Wortsman J, Wahr JA, Cryer PE, Gomez-Sanchez CE. Impaired neuroendocrine response mediates refractoriness to cardiopulmonary resuscitation in spinal anesthesia. Crit Care Med 1998; 26: 533-7.
22. Rosenberg JM, Wahr JA, Sung CH, Oh YS, Gilligan LJ. Coronary perfusion pressure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation after spinal anesthesia in dogs. Anesth Analg 1996; 82: 84-7.
23. Stienstra R. Mechanisms behind and treatment of sudden, unexpected circulatory collapse during central neuraxis blockade. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000; 44: 965-71.
24. Caplan RA, Ward RJ, Posner K, Cheney FW. Unexpected cardiac arrest during spinal anesthesia: A closed claims analysis of predisposing factors. Anesthesiology 1988; 68: 5-11.
25. Hilgenberg JC, Johantgen WC. Bradycardia after intravenous fentanyl during subarachnoid anesthesia (letter). Anesth Analg 1980; 59: 162-3.
26. Fortuna A. Droperidol and spinal anesthesia (letter). Anesth Analg 1984; 63: 782.
27. Keenan RL, Boyan CP. Cardiac arrest due to anesthesia. A study of incidence and causes. JAMA 1985; 253: 2373-7.
28. Krismer AC, Hogan QH, Wenzel V, et al. The efficacy of epi-nephrine or vasopressin for resuscitation during epidural anesthesia. Anesth Analg 2001; 93: 734-42.
29. Neal JM, Bernards CM, Butterworth JF, et al. ASRA practice advisory on local anesthetic systemic toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010; 35: 152-61.
30. Johns RA, DiFazio CA, Longnecker DE. Lidocaine constricts or dilates rat arterioles in a dose-dependent manner. Anesthesiol-ogy 1985; 62: 141-4.
31. Clarkson CW, Hondeghem LM. Evidence for a specific receptor site for lidocaine, quinidine and bupivacaine associated with cardiac sodium channels in guinea pig ventricular myocardium. Circ Res 1985; 56: 496-506.
32. Eledjam JJ, de La Coussaye JE, Brugada J, et al. In vitro study on mechanisms of bupivacaine-induced depression of myocar-dial contractility. Anesth Analg 1989; 69: 732-5.
33. Hasselstrom LJ, Mogensen T. Toxic reaction of bupivacaine at low plasma concentration. Anesthesiology 1984; 61: 99-100.
34. Groban L, Deal DD, Vernon JC, James RL, Butterworth J. Cardiac resuscitation after incremental overdosage with lido-caine, bupivacaine, levobupivacaine, and ropivacaine in anesthetized dogs. Anesth Analg 2001; 92: 37-43.
35. Hiller DB, Gregorio GD, Ripper R, et al. Epinephrine impairs lipid resuscitation from bupivacaine overdose: a threshold effect. Anesthesiology 2009; 111: 498-505.
36. Mayr VD, Raedler C, Wenzel V, Lindner KH, Strohmenger HU. A comparison of epinephrine and vasopressin in a porcine model of cardiac arrest after rapid intravenous injection of bupivacaine. Anesth Analg 2004; 98: 1426-31.
37. Rosenblatt MA, Abel M, Fischer GW, Itzkovich CJ, Eisenkraft JB. Successful use of a 20% lipid emulsion to resuscitate a patient after a presumed bupivacaine-related cardiac arrest. Anesthesiology 2006; 105: 217-8.
38. Litz RJ, Popp M, Stehr SN, Koch T. Successful resuscitation of a patient with ropivacaine-induced asystole after axillary plexus block using lipid infusion. Anaesthesia 2006; 61: 800-1.
39. Mayr VD, Mitterschiffthaler L, Neurauter A, et al. A comparison of the combination of epinephrine and vasopressin with lipid emulsion in a porcine model of asphyxial cardiac arrest after intravenous injection of bupivacaine. Anesth Analg 2008; 106: 1566-71.
40. Hicks SD, Salcido DD, Logue ES, et al. Lipid emulsion combined with epinephrine and vasopressin does not improve survival in a swine model of bupivacaine-induced cardiac arrest. Anesthesiology 2009; 111: 138-46.
41. Weinberg GL. Treatment of local anesthetic systemic toxicity (LAST). Reg Anesth Pain Med 2010; 35: 188-93.
42. Dewachter P, Mouton-Faivre C, Emala C. Anaphylaxis and anesthesia: controversies and new insights. Anesthesiology 2009; 5: 1141-50.
43. Whittington T, Fisher M. Anaphylactic and anaphylactoid reactions. Bailliere's Clin Anaesthesiol 1998; 12: 301-23.
44. Laxenaire MC. Epidemiology of anesthetic anaphylactoid reactions. Fourth multicenter survey (July 1994-December 1996). Ann Fr Anesth Réanim 1999; 18: 796-809.
45. Lienhart A, Auroy Y, Pequignot F, et al. Survey of anesthesia-related mortality in France. Anesthesiology 2006; 105: 1087-97.
46. Practice Parameters of the Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters for Allergy and Immunology: the diagnosis and management of anaphylaxis-an updated practice parameter. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005; 115: S483-523.
47. Harboe T, Guttormsen AB, Irgens A, et al. Anaphylaxis during anesthesia in Norway: a 6-year single-center follow-up study. Anesthesiology 2005; 102: 897-903.
48. Schwartz LB, Metcalfe DD, Miller JS, Earl H, Sullivan T. Tryptase levels as an indicator of mast-cell activation in systemic anaphylaxis and mastocytosis. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1622-6.
49. American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmo-nary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science. Part 12: Cardiac arrest in special situations. Circulation 2010; 122: S829-61.
50. Simons FER. Anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 125: S161-81.
51. Mirski MA, Lele AV, Fitzsimmons L, Toung TJK. Diagnosis and treatment of vascular air embolism. Anesthesiology 2007; 106: 164-77.
52. Aslam S, Friedman EA, Ifudu O. Electrocardiography is unreliable in detecting potentially lethal hyperkalaemia in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2002; 17: 1639-42.
53. Driessen JJ. Neuromuscular and mitochondrial disorders: what is relevant to the anaesthesiologist? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008; 21: 350-5.
54. Denborough M. Malignant hyperthermia. Lancet 1998; 352: 1131-6.
55. Litman RS, Rosenbert H. Malignant hyperthermia update on susceptibility testing. JAMA 2005; 293: 2918-24.
56. Dirksen SJ, Larach MG, Rosenberg, et al. Future directions in malignant hyperthermia research and patient care. Anesth Analg 2011; 113: 1108-19.
57. Larach MG, Brandom BW, Allen GC, Gronert GA, Lehman EB. Cardiac arrests and deaths associated with malignant hyper-thermia in North America from 1987 to 2006: a report from the North American Malignant Hyperthermia Registry of the Malignant Hyperthermia Association of the United States. Anesthesiology 2008; 108: 603-11.
58. Rosero EB, Adesanya AO, Timaran CH, Joshi GP. Trends and outcomes of malignant hyperthermia in the United States, 2000 to 2005. Anesthesiology 2009; 110: 89-94.
59. Domino KB, Bowdle TA, Posner KL, Spitellie PH, Lee LA, Cheney FW. Injuries and liability related to central vascular catheters: a closed claims analysis. Anesthesiology 2004; 100: 1411-8.
60. Knudtson JL, Dort JM, Helmer SD, Smith RS. Surgeon-preformed ultrasound for pneumothorax in the trauma suite. J Trauma 2004; 56: 527-30.
61. Standards and guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and emergency cardiac care (ECC). JAMA 1980; 244: 453-509.
62. Cohen SE, Andes LC, Carvalho B. Assessment of knowledge regarding cardiopulmonary resuscitation of pregnant women. Int J Obstet Anesth 2008; 17: 20-5.
63. Heitmiller ES, Nelson KL, Hunt EA, Schwartz JM, Yaster M, Shaffner DH. A survey of anesthesiologists' knowledge of American Heart Association Pediatric Advanced Life Support Resuscitation Guidelines. Resuscitation 2008; 79: 499-505.
64. Myhre JM, Ramachandran SK, Kheterpal S, Morris M, for the American Heart Association National Registry for Cardiopul-monary Resuscitation Investigators. Delayed time to defibrillation after intraoperative and periprocedural cardiac arrest. Anesthesiology 2010; 113: 782-93.
65. Ummenhofer W, Gabrielli A, Hogan Q, Soreide E, Zuercher M. Cardiac arrest during anesthesia: the science and practice of resuscitation medicine. In: Paradis N, Halperin H, Kern K, Wenzel V, Chamberlaind D, editors. Cardiac arrest. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2007. p. 1023-76.
66. Taenzer AH, Pyke JB, McGrath SP. A review of current and emerging approaches to address failure-to-rescue. Anesthesiol-ogy 2011; 115: 421-31.
67. Silber JH, Williams SV, Krakauer H, Schwartz JS. Hospital and patient characteristics associated with death after surgery: a study of adverse occurrence and failure to rescue. Med Care 1992; 30: 615-29.
68. Ghaferi AA, Birkmeyer JD, Dimick JB. Variation in hospital mortality associated with inpatient surgery. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1368-75.
69. Moore EE, Thomas G. Orr memorial lecture. Staged laparotomy for the hypothermia, acidosis, and coagulopathy syndrome. Am J Surg 1996; 172: 405-10.
70. Antman EM, Anbe DT, Armstrong PW, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2004; 110: e82-92.
71. Reynolds HR, Hochman JS. Cardiogenic shock: current concepts and improving outcomes. Circulation 2008; 117: 686-97.
72. Topalian S, Ginsberg F, Parrillo JE. Cardiogenic shock. Crit Care Med 2008; 36(1 Suppl): S66-74.
73. Haddad F, Doyle R, Murph DJ, Hunt SA. Right ventricular function in cardiovascular disease, part II. Circulation 2008; 117: 1717-32.
74. Strumpher J, Jacobsohn E. Pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular dysfunction: physiology and perioperative management. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2011; 25: 687-704.
75. Mullner M, Urbanek B, Havel C, Losert H, Waechter F, Gamper G. Vasopressors for shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 3: CD003709.
76. Robin JK, Oliver JA, Landry DW. Vasopressin deficiency in the syndrome of irreversible shock. J Trauma 2003; 54: S149-54.
77. Lindner KH, Prengel AW, Pfenninger EG, et al. Vasopressin improves vital organ blood flow during closed-chest cardiopul-monary resuscitation in pigs. Circulation 1995; 91: 215-21.
78. Wenzel V, Raab H, Dunser MW. Role of arginine vasopressin in the setting of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2008; 22: 287-97.
79. Schubert A, Palazzolo JA, Brum JM, Ribeiro MP, TanM. Heart rate, heart rate variability, and blood pressure during perioperative stressor events in abdominal surgery. J Clin Anesth 1997; 9: 52-60.
80. Breitkreutz R, Walcher F, Seeger FH. Focused echocardio-graphic evaluation in resuscitation management: concept of an advanced lifesupport-conformed algorithm. Crit Care Med 2007; 35(5Suppl): S150-61.
81. Cooper MS, Stewart PM. Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 727-34.
82. Cooper MS, Stewart PM. Adrenal insufficiency in critical illness. J Intensive Care Med 2007; 22: 348-62.
83. Hickling KG, Walsh J, Henderson S, Jackson R. Low mortality rate in adult respiratory distress syndrome using low-volume, pressure-limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia: a prospective study. Crit Care Med 1994; 22: 1568-78.
84. Hickling KG, Henderson SJ, Jackson R. Low mortality associated with low volume pressure limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnea in severe adult respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med 1990; 16: 372-7.
85. Roupie E, Dambrosio M, Servillo G, et al. Titration of tidal volume and induced hypercapnia in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 121-8.
86. Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, et al. Beneficial effects of the "open lung approach" with low distending pressures in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 152: 1835-46.
87. Mutlu GM, Factor P, Schwartz DE, Sznajder JI. Severe status asthmaticus: management with permissive hypercapnia and inhalation anesthesia. Crit Care Med 2002; 30: 477-80.
88. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1301-8.
89. Aufderheide TP, Sigurdsson G, Pirrallo RG, et al. Hyperventi-lation- induced hypotension during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation 2004; 109: 1960-5.
90. Pepe PE, Raedler C, Lurie KG, Wigginton JG. Emergency ventilatory management in hemorrhagic states: elemental or detrimental? J Trauma 2003; 54: 1048-55.
91. Yannopoulos D, Aufderheide T, Gabrielli A, et al. Clinical and hemodynamic comparison of 15:2 and 30:2 compression-to-ventilation ratios for cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 1444-9.
92. Ong ME, Ornato JP, Edwards DP, et al. Use of an automated, load-distributing band chest compression device for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resuscitation. JAMA 2006; 295: 2629-37.
93. Larsen AI, Hjornevik AS, Ellingsen CL, Nilsen DW. Cardiac arrest with continuous mechanical chest compression during percutaneous coronary intervention. A report on the use of the LUCAS device. Resuscitation 2007; 75: 454-9.
94. Cabrini L, Beccaria P, Landoni G, et al. Impact of impedance threshold devices on cardiopulmonary resuscitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. Crit Care Med 2008; 36: 1625-32.
95. Rogers PL, Schlichtig R, Miro A, Pinsky M. Auto-PEEP during CPR: an "occult" cause of electromechanical dissociation? Chest 1991; 99: 492-3.
96. Pepe PE, Marini JJ. Occult positive end-expiratory pressure in mechanically ventilated patients with airflow obstruction: the auto-PEEP effect. Am Rev Respir Dis 1982; 126: 166-70.
97. Franklin C, Samuel J, Hu T-C. Life-threatening hypotension associated with emergency intubation and the initiation of mechanical ventilation. Am J Emerg Med 1994; 12: 425-8.
98. Adhiyaman V, Adhiyaman S, Sundaram R. The Lazarus phenomenon. J R Soc Med 2007; 100: 552-7.
99. Michard F. Changes in arterial pressure during mechanical ventilation. Anesthesiology 2005; 103: 419-28.
100. Marik PE, Cavallazzi R, Vasu T, Hirani A. Dynamic changes in arterial waveform derived variables and fluid responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients. A systemic review of the literature. Crit Care Med 2009; 37: 2642-7.
101. Desebbe O, Cannesson M. Using ventilation-induced plethys-mographic variations to optimize patient fluid status. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008; 21: 772-8.
102. Feissel M, Teboul JL, Merlani P, et al. Plethysmographic dynamic indices predict fluid responsiveness in septic ventilated patients. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33: 993-9.
103. Natalini G, Rosano A, Taranto M, et al. Arterial versus ple-thysmographic dynamic indices to test responsiveness for testing fluid administration in hypotensive patients: a clinical trial. Anesth Analg 2006; 103: 1478-84.
104. Bendjelid K. The pulse oximetry plethysmographic curve revisited. Curr Opin Crit Care 2008; 14: 348-53.
105. Von Ballmoos MW, Takala J, Roeck M, et al. Pulse-pressure variation and hemodynamic response in patients with elevated pulmonary artery pressure: a clinical study. Critical Care 2010; 14: R111.
106. Boulain T, Ahcard JM, Teboul JL, et al. Changes in BP induced by passive leg raising predict response to fluid loading in critically ill patients. Chest 2002; 121: 1245-52.
107. Monnet X, Rienzo M, Osman D, et al. Passive leg raising predicts fluid responsiveness in the critically ill. Crit Care Med 2006; 34: 1402-7.
108. Lamia B, Ochagavia, Monnet X, et al. Echocardiographic prediction of volume responsiveness in critically ill patients with spontaneously breathing activity. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33: 1125-32.
109. Feissel M, Michard F, Faller JP, et al. The respiratory variation in inferior vena cava diameter as a guide to fluid therapy. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 1834-7.
110. Barbier C, Loubieres Y, Schmit C, et al. Respiratory changes in inferior vena cava diameter are helpful in predicting fluid responsiveness in ventilated septic patients. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 1740-6.
111. Feissel M, Michard F, Mangin I, et al. Respiratory changes in aortic blood velocity as an indicator of fluid responsiveness in ventilated patients with septic shock. Chest 2001; 119: 867-73.
112. Charron C, Caille V, Jardin F, et al. Echocardiographic measurement of fluid responsiveness. Curr Opin Crit Care 2006; 12: 249-54.
113. Schmid F, Goepfert M, Kuhnt D, et al. The wolf is crying in the operating room: patient monitor and anesthesia workstation alarming patterns during cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 2011; 112: 78-83.
114. Seagull F, Sanderson P. Anesthesia alarms in context: an observational study. Hum Factors 2001; 43: 66-78.
115. Cohn JN. Blood pressure in shock. Mechanism of inaccuracy in ausculatory and palpatory methods. JAMA 1967; 199: 972-6.
116. Levine RL, Wayne MA, Miller CC. End-tidal carbon dioxide and outcome of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 301-6.
117. Sanders AB, Kern KB, Otto CW, Milander MM, Ewy GA. End-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. A prognostic indicator for survival. JAMA 1989; 262: 1347-51.
118. Kern KB, Niemann JT, Steen S. Coronary perfusion pressure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation: the science and practice of resuscitation medicine. In: Paradis N, Halperin H, Kern K, Wenzel V, Chamberlain D, editors. Cardiac Arrest. 2nd ed. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2007. p. 369-88.
119. Callaham M, Barton C. Prediction of outcome of cardiopul-monary resuscitation from end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration. Crit Care Med 1990; 18: 358-62.
120. Sanders AB, Ewy GA, Taft TV. Prognostic and therapeutic importance of the aortic diastolic pressure in resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit Care Med 1984; 12: 871-3.
121. Ornato JP. Hemodynamic monitoring during CPR review. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22(2 Pt 2): 289-95.
122. Prause G, Archan S, Gemes G, et al. Tight control of effectiveness of cardiac massage with invasive blood pressure monitoring during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Am J Emerg Med 2010; 28: 746.e5-6.
123. Bohn A, Gude P. Feedback during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2008; 21: 200-3.
124. Paradis NA, Martin GB, Rivers EP, et al. Coronary perfusion pressure and the return of spontaneous circulation in human cardiopulmonary resuscitation. JAMA 1990; 263: 1106-13.
125. Kern KB, Ewy GA, Voorhees WD, Babbs CF, Tacker WA. Myocardial perfusion pressure: a predictor of 24-hour survival during prolonged cardiac arrest in dogs. Resuscitation 1988; 16: 241-50.
126. Neumar RW, Nolan JP, Adrie C, et al. Post-cardiac arrest syndrome: epidemiology, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognostication A Consensus Statement from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation 2008; 118: 2452-83.
127. Barthell E, Troiano P, Olson D, Stueyen HA, Hendley G. Pre-hospital external cardiac pacing: a prospective, controlled clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med 1988; 17: 1221-6.
128. Cummins RO, Graves JR, Larsen MP, et al. Out-of-hospital transcutaneous pacing by emergency medical technicians in patients with asystolic cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1377-82.
129. Hedges JR, Syverud SA, Dalsey WC, et al. Prehospital trial of emergency transcutaneous cardiac pacing. Circulation 1987; 76: 1337-43.
130. White JD, Brown CG. Immediate transthoracic pacing for cardiac asystole in an emergency department setting. Am J Emerg Med 1985; 3: 125-8.
131. Cohen SP, Kent C. Pronounced unexplained preoperative tachycardia heralding serious cardiac events: a series of three cases. Can J Anesth 2005; 52: 858-63.
132. ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for device-based therapy of cardiac rhythm abnormalities. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51: 1-62.