Pharmacology in the very young: Anaesthetic implications

European Journal of Anaesthesiology

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 261-270

  Anderson, Brian J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Anaesthesia; Developmental pharmacology; Neonate; Paediatrics; Pharmacodynamics; Pharmacokinetics

Indexed keywords

ATRACURIUM; BUPIVACAINE; DEXMEDETOMIDINE; LEVOBUPIVACAINE; MORPHINE; PLASMA PROTEIN; PROPOFOL; REMIFENTANIL; TRAMADOL;

BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; BLOOD FLOW; BODY COMPOSITION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; HUMAN; KIDNEY CLEARANCE; LIVER METABOLISM; MATURATION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PEDIATRIC ANESTHESIA; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PHARMACOGENOMICS; REVIEW;

AGING; ANESTHESIA; ANESTHETICS; BLOOD PROTEINS; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY WEIGHT; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPNOTICS AND SEDATIVES; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; INTESTINAL ABSORPTION; KIDNEY; LIVER; LUNG; MALE; METABOLIC CLEARANCE RATE; PHARMACOLOGY; REGIONAL BLOOD FLOW; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 84863715118     PISSN: 02650215     EISSN: 13652346     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/EJA.0b013e3283542329     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Maund E, McDaid C, Rice S, et al. Paracetamol and selective and nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the reduction in morphine-related side-effects after major surgery: a systematic review. Br J Anaesth 2011; 106:292-297.
2. van der Griend BF, Lister NA, McKenzie IM, et al. Postoperative mortality in children after 101 885 anesthetics at a tertiary pediatric hospital. Anesth Analg 2011; 112:1440-1447.
3. Berde C. Convulsions associated with pediatric regional anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1992; 75:164-166.
4. Keenan RL, Shapiro JH, Kane FR, Simpson PM. Bradycardia during anesthesia in infants. An epidemiologic study. Anesthesiology 1994; 80:976-982. (Pubitemid 24150877)
5. Lerman J, Heard C, Steward DJ. Neonatal tracheal intubation: an imbroglio unresolved. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20:585-590.
6. Tod M, Jullien V, Pons G. Facilitation of drug evaluation in children by population methods and modelling. Clin Pharmacokinet 2008; 47:231-243. (Pubitemid 351367434)
7. Potts AL, Anderson BJ, Warman GR, et al. Dexmedetomidine pharmacokinetics in pediatric intensive care: a pooled analysis. Paediatr Anaesth 2009; 19:1119-1129.
8. West GB, Brown JH. The origin of allometric scaling laws in biology from genomes to ecosystems: towards a quantitative unifying theory of biological structure and organization. J Exp Biol 2005; 208:1575-1592. (Pubitemid 40697606)
9. Anderson BJ, Holford NH. Mechanism-based concepts of size and maturity in pharmacokinetics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2008; 48:303-332. (Pubitemid 351738156)
10. Rigby-Jones AE, Priston MJ, Sneyd JR, et al. Remifentanil-midazolam sedation for paediatric patients receiving mechanical ventilation after cardiac surgery. Br J Anaesth 2007; 99:252-261. (Pubitemid 47249397)
11. Minto CF, Schnider TW, Egan TD, et al. Influence of age and gender on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of remifentanil. I: Model development. Anesthesiology 1997; 86:10-23. (Pubitemid 27043998)
12. Ross AK, Davis PJ, Dear Gd GL, et al. Pharmacokinetics of remifentanil in anesthetized pediatric patients undergoing elective surgery or diagnostic procedures. Anesth Analg 2001; 93:1393-1401. (Pubitemid 33111659)
13. Kan RE, Hughes SC, Rosen MA, et al. Intravenous remifentanil: placental transfer, maternal and neonatal effects. Anesthesiology 1998; 88:1467-1474. (Pubitemid 28283777)
14. Egan TD. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of remifentanil: an update in the year 2000. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2000; 13:449-455. (Pubitemid 30623804)
15. Welzing L, Ebenfeld S, Dlugay V, et al. Remifentanil degradation in umbilical cord blood of preterm infants. Anesthesiology 2011; 114:570-577.
16. Jeleazcov C, Ihmsen H, Schmidt J, et al. Pharmacodynamic modelling of the bispectral index response to propofol-based anaesthesia during general surgery in children. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100:509-516. (Pubitemid 351773602)
17. Anderson BJ, McKee AD, Holford NH. Size, myths and the clinical pharmacokinetics of analgesia in paediatric patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1997; 33:313-327. (Pubitemid 27480936)
18. Hill AV. The possible effects of the aggregation of the molecules of haemoglobin on its dissociation curves. J Physiol 1910; 14:; iv-vii.
19. Johnsrud EK, Koukouritaki SB, Divakaran K, et al. Human hepatic CYP2E1 expression during development. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003; 307:402-407. (Pubitemid 37151933)
20. Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, et al. Developmental pharmacology: drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med 2003; 349:1157-1167. (Pubitemid 37122329)
21. Ogasawara K, Tanaka M, Nishikawa T. Choice of electrocardiography lead does not affect the usefulness of the T-wave criterion for detecting intravascular injection of an epinephrine test dose in anesthetized children. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:372-376. (Pubitemid 36899732)
22. Anderson BJ, Hansen TG. Getting the best from pediatric pharmacokinetic data. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14:713-715. (Pubitemid 39223081)
23. Chalkiadis GA, Anderson BJ. Age and size are the major covariates for prediction of levobupivacaine clearance in children. Paediatr Anaesth 2006; 16:275-282.
24. Allegaert K, Anderson BJ, Verbesselt R, et al. Tramadol disposition in the very young: an attempt to assess in vivo cytochrome P-450 2D6 activity. Br J Anaesth 2005; 95:231-239. (Pubitemid 41487151)
25. Allegaert K, van den Anker JN, de Hoon JN, et al. Covariates of tramadol disposition in the first months of life. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100:525-532. (Pubitemid 351773612)
26. de Wildt SN, Kearns GL, Leeder JS, van den Anker JN. Cytochrome P450 3A: ontogeny and drug disposition. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999; 37:485-505. (Pubitemid 30032252)
27. Fagerlund TH, Braaten O. No pain relief from codeine...? An introduction to pharmacogenomics. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001; 45:140-149. (Pubitemid 32115682)
28. McCarver DG, Hines RN. The ontogeny of human drug-metabolizing enzymes: phase II conjugation enzymes and regulatory mechanisms. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 300:361-366. (Pubitemid 34106224)
29. Miyagi SJ, Collier AC. The development of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases 1A1 and 1A6 in the pediatric liver. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:912-919.
30. Burns LE, Hodgman JE. Fatal circulatory collapse in premature infants receiving chloramphenicol. N Engl J Med 1959; 261:1318-1321.
31. Anderson BJ, Holford NH. Mechanistic basis of using body size and maturation to predict clearance in humans. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2009; 24:25-36.
32. Bouwmeester NJ, Anderson BJ, Tibboel D, Holford NH. Developmental pharmacokinetics of morphine and its metabolites in neonates, infants and young children. Br J Anaesth 2004; 92:208-217. (Pubitemid 38159658)
33. Anand KJ, Anderson BJ, Holford NH, et al. Morphine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in preterm and term neonates: secondary results from the NEOPAIN trial. Br J Anaesth 2008; 101:680-689.
34. Anderson BJ, Woollard GA, Holford NH. A model for size and age changes in the pharmacokinetics of paracetamol in neonates, infants and children. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 50:125-134. (Pubitemid 30612030)
35. Anderson BJ, Pons G, Autret-Leca E, et al. Pediatric intravenous paracetamol (propacetamol) pharmacokinetics: a population analysis. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15:282-292. (Pubitemid 40462802)
36. Potts AL, Warman GR, Anderson BJ. Dexmedetomidine disposition in children: a population analysis. Paediatr Anaesth 2008; 18:722-730. (Pubitemid 352000581)
37. Anderson BJ, Holford NH. Tips and traps analyzing pediatric PK data. Paediatr Anaesth 2011; 21:222-237.
38. Allegaert K, Peeters MY, Verbesselt R, et al. Inter-individual variability in propofol pharmacokinetics in preterm and term neonates. Br J Anaesth 2007; 99:864-870. (Pubitemid 351773375)
39. Peters JW, Anderson BJ, Simons SH, et al. Morphine pharmacokinetics during venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in neonates. Intensive Care Med 2005; 31:257-263. (Pubitemid 40362275)
40. Rigby-Jones AE, Nolan JA, Priston MJ, et al. Pharmacokinetics of propofol infusions in critically ill neonates, infants, and children in an intensive care unit. Anesthesiology 2002; 97:1393-1400. (Pubitemid 35417436)
41. Corcos L, Lagadic-Gossmann D. Gene induction by phenobarbital: an update on an old question that receives key novel answers. Pharmacol Toxicol 2001; 89:113-122. (Pubitemid 32905240)
42. Eker HE, Yalcin Cok O, Aribogan A, Arslan G. Children on phenobarbital monotherapy requires more sedatives during MRI. Paediatr Anaesth 2011; 21:998-1002.
43. Sumpter A, Anderson BJ. Phenobarbital and some anesthesia implications. Pediatr Anaesth 2011; 21:995-997.
44. Sawyer DC, Eger EI, Bahlman SH, et al. Concentration dependence of hepatic halothane metabolism. Anesthesiology 1971; 34:230-235.
45. Rhodin MM, Anderson BJ, Peters AM, et al. Human renal function maturation: a quantitative description using weight and postmenstrual age. Pediatr Nephrol 2009; 24:67-76.
46. Langhendries JP, Battisti O, Bertrand JM, et al. Adaptation in neonatology of the once-daily concept of aminoglycoside administration: evaluation of a dosing chart for amikacin in an intensive care unit. Biol Neonate 1998; 74:351-362. (Pubitemid 28461753)
47. Fisher DM, O'Keeffe C, Stanski DR, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of d-tubocurarine in infants, children, and adults. Anesthesiology 1982; 57:203-208. (Pubitemid 12057041)
48. McNamara DG, Nixon GM, Anderson BJ. Methylxanthines for the treatment of apnea associated with bronchiolitis and anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth 2004; 14:541-550. (Pubitemid 38869920)
49. Grand RJ, Watkins JB, Torti FM. Development of the human intestinal tract: a review. Gastroenterology 1976; 70:790-810.
50. Liang J, Co E, Zhang M, et al. Development of gastric slow waves in preterm infants measured by electrogastrography. Am J Physiol 1998; 274:G503-G508. (Pubitemid 28160548)
51. Anderson BJ, van Lingen RA, Hansen TG, et al. Acetaminophen developmental pharmacokinetics in premature neonates and infants: a pooled population analysis. Anesthesiology 2002; 96:1336-1345. (Pubitemid 34587201)
52. Cote CJ, Karl HW, Notterman DA, et al. Adverse sedation events in pediatrics: analysis of medications used for sedation. Pediatrics 2000; 106:633-644.
53. Taddio A, Stevens B, Craig K, et al. Efficacy and safety of lidocaineprilocaine cream for pain during circumcision. N Engl J Med 1997; 336:1197-1201. (Pubitemid 27183648)
54. Bosenberg AT, Bland BA, Schulte Steinberg O, Downing JW. Thoracic epidural anesthesia via caudal route in infants. Anesthesiology 1988; 69:265-269.
55. Warner MA, Kunkel SE, Offord KO, et al. The effects of age, epinephrine, and operative site on duration of caudal analgesia in pediatric patients. Anesth Analg 1987; 66:995-998. (Pubitemid 18007876)
56. Salanitre E, Rackow H. The pulmonary exchange of nitrous oxide and halothane in infants and children. Anesthesiology 1969; 30:388-394.
57. Lerman J. Pharmacology of inhalational anaesthetics in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 1992; 2:191-203.
58. Malviya S, Lerman J. The blood/gas solubilities of sevoflurane, isoflurane, halothane, and serum constituent concentrations in neonates and adults. Anesthesiology 1990; 72:793-796. (Pubitemid 20149209)
59. Molin JC, Bendhack LM. Clonidine induces rat aorta relaxation by nitric oxide-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Vascul Pharmacol 2004; 42:1-6. (Pubitemid 40128136)
60. Karl HW, Rosenberger JL, Larach MG, Ruffle JM. Transmucosal administration of midazolam for premedication of pediatric patients. Comparison of the nasal and sublingual routes. Anesthesiology 1993; 78:885-891. (Pubitemid 23141364)
61. Herd DW, Salehi B. Palatability of two forms of paracetamol (acetaminophen) suspension: a randomised trial. Paediatr Perinat Drug Ther 2006; 7:189-193. (Pubitemid 46438577)
62. Friis-Hansen B. Body water compartments in children: changes during growth and related changes in body composition. Pediatrics 1961; 28:169-181.
63. Luz G, Innerhofer P, Bachmann B, et al. Bupivacaine plasma concentrations during continuous epidural anesthesia in infants and children. Anesth Analg 1996; 82:231-234. (Pubitemid 26055006)
64. Luz G, Wieser C, Innerhofer P, et al. Free and total bupivacaine plasma concentrations after continuous epidural anaesthesia in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 1998; 8:473-478. (Pubitemid 28523407)
65. Erichsen CJ, Sjovall J, Kehlet H, et al. Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effect of ropivacaine during continuous epidural infusion for postoperative pain relief. Anesthesiology 1996; 84:834-842. (Pubitemid 26105246)
66. Bosenberg AT, Thomas J, Cronje L, et al. Pharmacokinetics and efficacy of ropivacaine for continuous epidural infusion in neonates and infants. Paediatr Anaesth 2005; 15:739-749. (Pubitemid 43960890)
67. Larsson BA, Lonnqvist PA, Olsson GL. Plasma concentrations of bupivacaine in neonates after continuous epidural infusion. Anesth Analg 1997; 84:501-505. (Pubitemid 27100378)
68. Russo H, Bressolle F. Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of thiopental. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 35:95-134. (Pubitemid 28379424)
69. Gal P, Gilman JT. Drug disposition in neonates with patent ductus arteriosus. Ann Pharmacother 1993; 27:1383-1388. (Pubitemid 23336352)
70. Bjorkman S. Prediction of drug disposition in infants and children by means of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling: theophylline and midazolam as model drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2005; 59:691-704. (Pubitemid 40835503)
71. Johnson TN, Tucker GT, Tanner MS, Rostami-Hodjegan A. Changes in liver volume from birth to adulthood: a meta-analysis. Liver Transpl 2005; 11:1481-1493. (Pubitemid 43072624)
72. Way WL, Costley EC, Way EL. Respiratory sensitivity of the newborn infant to meperidine and morphine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1965; 6:454-461.
73. Lynn AM, Nespeca MK, Opheim KE, Slattery JT. Respiratory effects of intravenous morphine infusions in neonates, infants, and children after cardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 1993; 77:695-701. (Pubitemid 23291882)
74. Engelhardt B. Development of the blood-brain barrier. Cell Tissue Res 2003; 314:119-129. (Pubitemid 37409918)
75. Henthorn TK, Liu Y, Mahapatro M, Ng KY. Active transport of fentanyl by the blood-brain barrier. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 289:1084-1089. (Pubitemid 29191270)
76. Hamabe W, Maeda T, Kiguchi N, et al. Negative relationship between morphine analgesia and P-glycoprotein expression levels in the brain. J Pharmacol Sci 2007; 105:353-360.
77. Choudhuri S, Klaassen CD. Structure, function, expression, genomic organization, and single nucleotide polymorphisms of human ABCB1 (MDR1), ABCC (MRP), and ABCG2 (BCRP) efflux transporters. Int J Toxicol 2006; 25:231-259. (Pubitemid 44034685)
78. Stephenson T. How children's responses to drugs differ from adults. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2005; 59:670-673. (Pubitemid 40835499)
79. LeDez KM, Lerman J. The minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in preterm neonates. Anesthesiology 1987; 67:301-307. (Pubitemid 18077407)
80. Lerman J, Robinson S, Willis MM, Gregory GA. Anesthetic requirements for halothane in young children 0-1 month and 1-6 months of age. Anesthesiology 1983; 59:421-424. (Pubitemid 14227515)
81. Koch SC, Fitzgerald M, Hathway GJ. Midazolam potentiates nociceptive behavior, sensitizes cutaneous reflexes, and is devoid of sedative action in neonatal rats. Anesthesiology 2008; 108:122-129.
82. Westrin P, Jonmarker C, Werner O. Thiopental requirements for induction of anesthesia in neonates and in infants one to six months of age. Anesthesiology 1989; 71:344-346. (Pubitemid 19226171)
83. Jonmarker C, Westrin P, Larsson S, Werner O. Thiopental requirements for induction of anesthesia in children. Anesthesiology 1987; 67:104-107. (Pubitemid 18003438)
84. Glantz LA, Gilmore JH, Hamer RM, et al. Synaptophysin and postsynaptic density protein 95 in the human prefrontal cortex from mid-gestation into early adulthood. Neuroscience 2007; 149:582-591. (Pubitemid 47633016)
85. Norman E, Malmqvist U, Westrin P, Fellman V. Thiopental pharmacokinetics in newborn infants: a case report of overdose. Acta Paediatr 2009; 98:1680-1682.
86. Meakin G, Morton RH, Wareham AC. Age-dependent variation in response to tubocurarine in the isolated rat diaphragm. Br J Anaesth 1992; 68:161-163.
87. Wareham AC, Morton RH, Meakin GH. Low quantal content of the endplate potential reduces safety factor for neuromuscular transmission in the diaphragm of the newborn rat. Br J Anaesth 1994; 72:205-209. (Pubitemid 24054342)
88. Radford D. Side effects of verapamil in infants. Arch Dis Child 1983; 58:465-466. (Pubitemid 13056495)
89. Seri I, Tulassay T, Kiszel J, et al. Cardiovascular response to dopamine in hypotensive preterm neonates with severe hyaline membrane disease. Eur J Pediatr 1984; 142:3-9. (Pubitemid 14175036)
90. Cuevas L, Yeh TF, John EG, et al. The effect of low-dose dopamine infusion on cardiopulmonary and renal status in premature newborns with respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Dis Child 1991; 145:799-803.
91. Seri I. Dopamine and natriuresis. Mechanism of action and developmental aspects. Am J Hypertens 1990; 3:82S-86S. (Pubitemid 20380230)
92. Seri I, Tulassay T, Kiszel J, et al. Effect of low-dose dopamine infusion on prolactin and thyrotropin secretion in preterm infants with hyaline membrane disease. Biol Neonate 1985; 47:317-322. (Pubitemid 15042852)
93. Davidson AJ. Measuring anesthesia in children using the EEG. Pediatr Anesthesia 2006; 16:374-387.
94. Davidson AJ, Huang GH, Rebmann CS, Ellery C. Performance of entropy and Bispectral Index as measures of anaesthesia effect in children of different ages. Br J Anaesth 2005; 95:674-679. (Pubitemid 41600031)
95. Davidson AJ, Sale SM, Wong C, et al. The electroencephalograph during anesthesia and emergence in infants and children. Paediatr Anaesth 2008; 18:60-70. (Pubitemid 350264591)
96. Jeleazcov C, Schmidt J, Schmitz B, et al. EEG variables as measures of arousal during propofol anaesthesia for general surgery in children: rational selection and age dependence. Br J Anaesth 2007; 99:845-854. (Pubitemid 351773370)
97. Thewissen L, Allegaert K. Analgosedation in neonates: do we still need additional tools after 30 years of clinical research? Arch Dis Child Educ Pract Ed 2011; 96:112-118.
98. Bruguerolle B, Attolini L, Lorec AM, Gantenbein M. Kinetics of bupivacaine after clonidine pretreatment in mice. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42:434-437.
99. Inomata S, Tanaka E, Miyabe M, et al. Plasma lidocaine concentrations during continuous thoracic epidural anesthesia after clonidine premedication in children. Anesth Analg 2001; 93:1147-1151. (Pubitemid 33021005)
100. Sanchez AR, Rogers RS, Sheridan PJ. Tetracycline and other tetracyclinederivative staining of the teeth and oral cavity. Int J Dermatol 2004; 43:709-715. (Pubitemid 39405851)
101. Linden G, Henderson BE.Genital-tract cancers in adolescents and young adults. N Engl J Med 1972; 286:760-761.
102. Fredriksson A, Archer T, Alm H, et al. Neurofunctional deficits and potentiated apoptosis by neonatal NMDA antagonist administration. Behav. Brain Res 2004; 153:367-376. (Pubitemid 38953110)
103. Wang C, Sadovova N, Fu X, et al. The role of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor in ketamine-induced apoptosis in rat forebrain culture. Neuroscience 2005; 132:967-977. (Pubitemid 40602532)
104. Davidson AJ. Anesthesia and neurotoxicity to the developing brain: the clinical relevance. Paediatr Anaesth 2011; 21:716-721.
105. Schechter NL, Allen DA, Hanson K. Status of pediatric pain control: a comparison of hospital analgesic usage in children and adults. Pediatrics 1986; 77:11-15. (Pubitemid 16176891)
106. Ansermino M, Basu R, Vandebeek C, Montgomery C. Nonopioid additives to local anaesthetics for caudal blockade in children: a systematic review. Paediatr Anaesth 2003; 13:561-573. (Pubitemid 37153464)
107. Welzing L, Kribs A, Eifinger F, et al. Propofol as an induction agent for endotracheal intubation can cause significant arterial hypotension in preterm neonates. Paediatr Anaesth 2010; 20:605-611.
108. Vanderhaegen J, Naulaers G, Van Huffel S, et al. Cerebral and systemic hemodynamic effects of intravenous bolus administration of propofol in neonates. Neonatology 2010; 98:57-63.
109. Anderson BJ, Hodkinson B. Are there still limitations for the use of targetcontrolled infusion in children? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2010; 23:356-362.
110. Binning AR, Przesmycki K, Sowinski P, et al. A randomised controlled trial on the efficacy and side-effect profile (nausea/vomiting/sedation) of morphine-6-glucuronide versus morphine for postoperative pain relief after major abdominal surgery. Eur J Pain 2011; 15:402-408.