Epidemiology of substance use disorders

Human Genetics

Volumn 131, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 779-789

  Merikangas, Kathleen R ^a   McClair, Vetisha L ^a  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; CANNABIS; ILLICIT DRUG; OPIATE;

ADOLESCENCE; ADOPTION; ALCOHOL USE DISORDER; ALCOHOLISM; CANNABIS ADDICTION; DSM-IV; DSM-IV-TR; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FAMILY STUDY; GENETIC EPIDEMIOLOGY; HUMAN; JUVENILE; MIGRATION; OPIATE ADDICTION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOPATHY; REVIEW; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; TWINS; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADOPTION; ADULT; EPIDEMIOLOGIC RESEARCH DESIGN; HUMANS; PREVALENCE; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; TWIN STUDIES AS TOPIC; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84862703200     PISSN: 03406717     EISSN: 14321203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00439-012-1168-0     Document Type: Review

References (82)

1. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-IV-TR (Text Revision), vol 4th. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
2. Avenevoli S, Conway K, Merikangas K (2005) Familial risk factors for substance use disorders. In: Hudson J, Rapee R (eds) Current thinking on psychopathology and the family. Elsevier, New York
3. SL Bailey 1992 Adolescents' multisubstance use patterns: the role of heavy alcohol and cigarette use Am J Public Health 82 9 1220 1224 1503161 10.2105/AJPH.82.9.1220 1:STN:280:DyaK38zmslyhtw%3D%3D
4. K Bakken AS Landheim P Vaglum 2004 Early and late onset groups of substance misusers: differences in primary and secondary psychiatric disorders J Subst Use 9 5 224 234 10.1080/14659890410001711706
5. SP Barrett C Darredeau RO Pihl 2006 Patterns of simultaneous polysubstance use in drug using university students Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 21 4 255 263 10.1002/hup.766 10.1002/hup.766
6. L Bierut 2011 Genetic vulnerability and susceptibility to substance dependence Neuron 69 4 618 627 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.015 21338875 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.02.015 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3MXit1Kntb4%3D
7. LJ Bierut SH Dinwiddie H Begleiter RR Crowe V Hesselbrock JI Nurnberger Jr. B Porjesz MA Schuckit T Reich 1998 Familial transmission of substance dependence: alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and habitual smoking: a report from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 11 982 988 9819066 10.1001/archpsyc.55.11.982 1:STN:280:DyaK1M%2FjsVektw%3D%3D
8. JS Brook EB Balka AM Crossman H Dermatis M Galanter DW Brook 2010 The relationship between parental alcohol use, early and late adolescent alcohol use, and young adult psychological symptoms: a longitudinal study Am J Addict 19 6 534 542 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00083.x 20958850 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010. 00083.x
9. Cadoret RJ (1992) Genetic and environmental factors in initiation of drug use and the transition to abuse. In: Glantx MaP R (ed) Vulnerability to drug abuse american psychological association. Washington DC, pp 99-113
10. RJ Cadoret E Troughton TW O'Gorman E Heywood 1986 An adoption study of genetic and environmental factors in drug abuse Arch Gen Psychiatry 43 12 1131 1136 3778110 10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800120017004 1:STN:280: DyaL2s%2Fksl2ltg%3D%3D
11. RJ Cadoret WR Yates E Troughton G Woodworth MA Stewart 1995 Adoption study demonstrating two genetic pathways to drug abuse Arch Gen Psychiatry 52 1 42 52 7811161 10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950130042005 1:STN:280: DyaK2M7htVaitw%3D%3D
12. RJ Cadoret WR Yates E Troughton G Woodworth MA Stewart 1996 An adoption study of drug abuse/dependency in females Compr Psychiatry 37 2 88 94 8654068 10.1016/S0010-440X(96)90567-2 1:STN:280:DyaK283kt1GktA%3D%3D
13. DB Clark J Cornelius DS Wood M Vanyukov 2004 Psychopathology risk transmission in children of parents with substance use disorders Am J Psychiatry 161 4 685 691 15056515 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.4.685
14. WM Compton YF Thomas FS Stinson BF Grant 2007 Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions Arch Gen Psychiatry 64 5 566 576 10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.566 17485608 10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.566
15. JH Cotto E Davis GJ Dowling JC Elcano AB Staton SRB Weiss 2010 Gender effects on drug use, abuse, and dependence: a special analysis of results from the national survey on drug use and health Gend Med 7 5 402 413 10.1016/j.genm.2010.09.004 21056867 10.1016/j.genm.2010.09.004
16. L Degenhardt W-T Chiu N Sampson RC Kessler JC Anthony M Angermeyer R Bruffaerts G de Girolamo O Gureje Y Huang A Karam S Kostyuchenko JP Lepine MEM Mora Y Neumark JH Ormel A Pinto-Meza J Posada-Villa DJ Stein T Takeshima JE Wells 2008 Toward a global view of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine use: findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys PLoS Med 5 7 e141 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050141 18597549 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050141
17. K Demyttenaere R Bruffaerts J Posada-Villa I Gasquet V Kovess JP Lepine MC Angermeyer S Bernert G de Girolamo P Morosini G Polidori T Kikkawa N Kawakami Y Ono T Takeshima H Uda EG Karam JA Fayyad AN Karam ZN Mneimneh ME Medina-Mora G Borges C Lara R de Graaf J Ormel O Gureje Y Shen Y Huang M Zhang J Alonso JM Haro G Vilagut EJ Bromet S Gluzman C Webb RC Kessler KR Merikangas JC Anthony MR Von Korff PS Wang TS Brugha S Aguilar-Gaxiola S Lee S Heeringa BE Pennell AM Zaslavsky TB Ustun S Chatterji 2004 Prevalence, severity, and unmet need for treatment of mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys JAMA 291 21 2581 2590 15173149 10.1001/jama.291.21.2581
18. EL Edens AL Glowinski KL Grazier KK Bucholz 2008 The 14-year course of alcoholism in a community sample: Do men and women differ? Drug Alcohol Depend 93 1-2 1 11 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.08.013 17935914 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007. 08.013
19. SA Everett GA Giovino CW Warren L Crossett L Kann 1998 Other substance use among high school students who use tobacco J Adolesc Health 23 5 289 296 10.1016/s1054-139x(98)00023-8 9814389 10.1016/S1054-139X(98)00023-8 1:STN:280:DyaK1M%2FivFGhtA%3D%3D
20. DM Fergusson JM Boden LJ Horwood 2008 The developmental antecedents of illicit drug use: evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study Drug Alcohol Depend 96 1-2 165 177 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.03.003 18423900 10.1016/j.drugalcdep. 2008.03.003
21. CB Fleming DD Brewer RR Gainey KP Haggerty RF Catalano 1997 Parent drug use and bonding to parents as predictors of substance use in children of substance users J Child Adolesc Subst Abuse 6 75 86 10.1300/J029v06n04-04
22. Gordis L (2000) Epidemiology. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia
23. BF Grant 1995 Comorbidity between DSM-IV drug use disorders and major depression: results of a national survey of adults J Subst Abuse 7 4 481 497 10.1016/0899-3289(95)90017-9 8838629 10.1016/0899-3289(95)90017-9 1:STN:280:DyaK28vjsFOnsQ%3D%3D
24. BF Grant DA Dawson 1997 Age at onset of alcohol use and its association with DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: results from the national longitudinal alcohol epidemiologic survey J Subst Abuse 9 103 110 10.1016/s0899-3289(97) 90009-2 9494942 10.1016/S0899-3289(97)90009-2 1:STN:280:DyaK1c7ls1SntA%3D%3D
25. BF Grant FS Stinson DA Dawson SP Chou MC Dufour W Compton RP Pickering K Kaplan 2004 Prevalence and co-occurrence of substance use disorders and independent mood and anxiety disorders: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions Arch Gen Psychiatry 61 8 807 816 10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.807 15289279 10.1001/archpsyc.61.8.807
26. Grant BF, Kaplan KK, Stinson FS (2007) Source and accuracy statement: the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda
27. BF Grant RB Goldstein SP Chou B Huang FS Stinson DA Dawson TD Saha SM Smith AJ Pulay RP Pickering WJ Ruan WM Compton 2008 Sociodemographic and psychopathologic predictors of first incidence of DSM-IV substance use, mood and anxiety disorders: results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions Mol Psychiatry 14 11 1051 1066 18427559 10.1038/mp.2008.41
28. BC Haberstick JS Zeiger RP Corley CJ Hopfer MC Stallings SH Rhee JK Hewitt 2011 Common and drug-specific genetic influences on subjective effects to alcohol, tobacco and marijuana use Addiction 106 1 215 224 10.1111/j.1360-0443. 2010.03129.x 20955487 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03129.x
29. W Hall L Degenhardt 2011 Cannabis and the increased incidence and persistence of psychosis BMJ 342 d719 10.1136/bmj.d719 21363867 10.1136/bmj.d719
30. DS Hasin FS Stinson E Ogburn BF Grant 2007 Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions Arch Gen Psychiatry 64 7 830 842 10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.830 17606817 10.1001/archpsyc.64.7.830
31. Heath AC, Madden PAF (1995) Genetic influences on smoking behavior. In: Turner JR, Cardon LR, Hewitt JK (eds) Behavior genetic approaches in behavioral medicine. Plenum Press, New York
32. AC Heath R Cates NG Martin J Meyer JK Hewitt MC Neale LJ Eaves 1993 Genetic contribution to risk of smoking initiation: comparisons across birth cohorts and across cultures J Subst Abuse 5 3 221 246 8312729 10.1016/0899-3289(93)90065-J 1:STN:280:DyaK2c7ks1GnsA%3D%3D
33. SY Hill KD Tessner MD McDermott 2011 Psychopathology in offspring from families of alcohol dependent female probands: a prospective study J Psychiatr Res 45 3 285 294 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.08.005 20801463 10.1016/j.jpsychires. 2010.08.005
34. JP Hoffmann FG Cerbone 2002 Parental substance use disorder and the risk of adolescent drug abuse: an event history analysis Drug Alcohol Depend 66 255 264 12062460 10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00005-4
35. Hopfer CJ, Stallings MC, Hewitt JK, Crowley TJ (2003) Family transmission of marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42(7):834-841. doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000046874.56865.85
36. Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE (2011) Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2010, vol I: Secondary school students. Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, MI
37. DB Kandel K Yamaguchi K Chen 1992 Stages of progression in drug involvement from adolescence to adulthood: further evidence for the gateway theory J Stud Alcohol 53 5 447 457 1405637 1:STN:280:DyaK3s%2Fit1Oitg%3D%3D
38. KS Kendler CA Prescott 1998 Cannabis use, abuse, and dependence in a population-based sample of female twins Am J Psychiatry 155 8 1016 1022 9699687 1:STN:280:DyaK1czmtlaltQ%3D%3D
39. KS Kendler CA Prescott 1998 Cocaine use, abuse and dependence in a population-based sample of female twins Br J Psychiatry 173 345 350 9926041 10.1192/bjp.173.4.345 1:STN:280:DyaK1M7isVyltg%3D%3D
40. KS Kendler LM Karkowski MC Neale CA Prescott 2000 Illicit psychoactive substance use, heavy use, abuse, and dependence in a US population-based sample of male twins Arch Gen Psychiatry 57 3 261 269 10711912 10.1001/archpsyc.57.3. 261 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c7nsFSktA%3D%3D
41. KS Kendler KC Jacobson CA Prescott MC Neale 2003 Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, sedatives, stimulants, and opiates in male twins Am J Psychiatry 160 4 687 695 12668357 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.687
42. KS Kendler SH Aggen K Tambs T Reichborn-Kjennerud 2006 Illicit psychoactive substance use, abuse and dependence in a population-based sample of Norwegian twins Psychol Med 36 7 955 962 10.1017/S0033291706007720 16650346 10.1017/S0033291706007720
43. KS Kendler J Myers CA Prescott 2007 Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for symptoms of cannabis, cocaine, alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine dependence Arch Gen Psychiatry 64 11 1313 1320 10.1001/archpsyc.64.11.1313 17984400 10.1001/archpsyc.64.11.1313
44. RC Kessler TB Üstün 2004 The World Mental Health (WMH) survey initiative version of the World Health Organization (WHO) Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). I Int J Methods Psychiatric Res 13 2 93 121 10.1002/mpr.168 10.1002/mpr.168
45. RC Kessler P Berglund WT Chiu O Demler S Heeringa E Hiripi R Jin BE Pennell EE Walters A Zaslavsky H Zheng 2004 The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R): design and field procedures Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 13 2 69 92 15297905 10.1002/mpr.167
46. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Walters EE (2005) Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62(6):617-627. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
47. Kessler RC, Angermeyer M, Anthony JC, de Graaf R, Demyttenaere K, Gasquet I, de Graaf G, Gluzman S, Gureje O, Haro JM, Kawakami N, Karam A, Levinson D, Medina Mora ME, Oakley Browne MA, Posada-Villa J, Stein DJ, Adley Tsang CH, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Alonso J, Lee S, Heeringa S, Pennell BE, Berglund P, Gruber MJ, Petukhova M, Chatterji S, Ustun TB (2007) Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of mental disorders in the World Health Organization's World Mental Health Survey Initiative. World Psychiatry 6(3):168-176
48. RC Kessler S Avenevoli EJ Costello JG Green MJ Gruber S Heeringa KR Merikangas BE Pennell NA Sampson AM Zaslavsky 2009 National comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement (NCS-A): II. Overview and design J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 48 4 380 385 10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181999705 19242381 10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181999705
49. LH Kuller 1979 The role of population genetics in the study of the epidemiology of cardiovascular risk factors Prog Clin Biol Res 32 489 495 523483 1:STN:280:DyaL3c7gtFOnuw%3D%3D
50. DR Langbehn RJ Cadoret K Caspers EP Troughton R Yucuis 2003 Genetic and environmental risk factors for the onset of drug use and problems in adoptees Drug Alcohol Depend 69 2 151 167 12609696 10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00310-1
51. P Larm S Hodgins A Tengström A Larsson 2010 Trajectories of resilience over 25 years of individuals who as adolescents consulted for substance misuse and a matched comparison group Addiction 105 7 1216 1225 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02914.x 20331546 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02914.x
52. MacMahon B, Trichopoulos D (1996) Epidemiology: principles and methods. Brown and Company, Boston
53. J McCambridge J McAlaney R Rowe 2011 Adult consequences of late adolescent alcohol consumption: a systematic review of cohort studies PLoS Med 8 2 e1000413 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000413 21346802 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000413
54. McGue M (1994) Genes, environment, and the etiology of alcoholism. In: Zucker R, Boyd G, Howard J (eds) The development of alcohol problems: exploring the biopsychosocial matrix. US Department of Health, Human Services Research Monograph No. 26, Rockville
55. KR Merikangas 1990 The genetic epidemiology of alcoholism Psychol Med 20 1 11 22 2181516 10.1017/S0033291700013192 1:STN:280:DyaK3c3gslGgsQ%3D%3D
56. KR Merikangas S Avenevoli 2000 Implications of genetic epidemiology for the prevention of substance use disorders Addict Behav 25 6 807 820 11125772 10.1016/S0306-4603(00)00129-5 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M7ksV2qtg%3D%3D pii:S0306460300001295
57. Merikangas KR, Conway KP (2009) Genetic epidemiology of substance use disorders. In: Charney DS, Nester EJ (eds) Neurobiology of mental illness. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 786-800
58. KR Merikangas N Risch 2003 Will the genomics revolution revolutionize psychiatry? Am J Psychiatry 160 4 625 635 12668348 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.625
59. KR Merikangas LC Dierker P Szatmari 1998 Psychopathology among offspring of parents with substance abuse and/or anxiety disorders: a high-risk study J Child Psychol Psychiatry 39 5 711 720 9690934 10.1017/S0021963098002522 1:STN:280:DyaK1czltlantg%3D%3D
60. KR Merikangas R Herrell J Swendsen W Rossler V Ajdacic-Gross J Angst 2008 Specificity of bipolar spectrum conditions in the comorbidity of mood and substance use disorders: results from the Zurich cohort study Arch Gen Psychiatry 65 1 47 52 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.18 18180428 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.18
61. KR Merikangas KP Conway J Swendsen V Febo L Dierker W Brunetto M Stolar G Canino 2009 Substance use and behaviour disorders in Puerto Rican youth: a migrant family study J Epidemiol Community Health 63 4 310 316 10.1136/jech.2008.078048 19147633 10.1136/jech.2008.078048 1:STN:280: DC%2BD1M3hvFOltg%3D%3D
62. KR Merikangas JP He M Burstein SA Swanson S Avenevoli L Cui C Benjet K Georgiades J Swendsen 2010 Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in US adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 49 10 980 989 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017 20855043 10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017
63. JI Nurnberger Jr. R Wiegand K Bucholz S O'Connor ET Meyer T Reich J Rice M Schuckit L King T Petti L Bierut AL Hinrichs S Kuperman V Hesselbrock B Porjesz 2004 A family study of alcohol dependence: coaggregation of multiple disorders in relatives of alcohol-dependent probands Arch Gen Psychiatry 61 12 1246 1256 15583116 10.1001/archpsyc.61.12.1246
64. C O'Brien 2011 Addiction and dependence in DSM-V Addiction 106 5 866 867 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03144.x 21477226 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03144.x
65. GC Patton C Coffey MT Lynskey S Reid S Hemphill JB Carlin W Hall 2007 Trajectories of adolescent alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood Addiction 102 4 607 615 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01728.x 17286642 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01728.x
66. N Pedersen 1981 Twin similarity for usage of common drugs Prog Clin Biol Res 69 Pt C 53 59 7198252
67. DA Regier ME Farmer DS Rae BZ Locke SJ Keith LL Judd FK Goodwin 1990 Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse: results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study J Am Med Assoc 264 19 2511 2518 10.1001/jama.1990.03450190043026 10.1001/jama.1990.03450190043026 1:STN:280:DyaK3M%2FjvFOiug%3D%3D
68. P Rohde PM Lewinsohn CW Kahler JR Seeley RA Brown 2001 Natural course of alcohol use disorders from adolescence to young adulthood J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40 1 83 90 10.1097/00004583-200101000-00020 11195569 10.1097/00004583-200101000-00020 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M7gsleltQ%3D%3D
69. SAMHSA (2011) Results from the 2010 national survey on drug use and health: summary of national findings, vol NSDUH, Series H-41, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4658. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville
70. JD Schulden YF Thomas WM Compton 2009 Substance abuse in the United States: findings from recent epidemiologic studies Curr Psychiatry Rep 11 5 353 359 19785975 10.1007/s11920-009-0053-6
71. J Swendsen M Le Moal 2011 Individual vulnerability to addiction Ann NY Acad Sci 1216 1 73 85 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05894.x 21272012 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05894.x
72. Swendsen J, Conway KP, Degenhardt L, Glantz M, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Sampson N, Kessler RC (2010) Mental disorders as risk factors for substance use, abuse and dependence: results from the 10-year follow-up of the National Comorbidity Survey. Addiction 105(6):1117-1128. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010. 02902.x
73. J Swendsen M Burstein B Case K Conway L Dierker J He KR Merikangas 2012 The use and abuse of alcohol and illicit drugs in US adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey-Adolescent Supplement Arch Gen Psychiartry 69 4 390 398 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1503
74. Swift W, Coffey C, Degenhardt L, Carlin JB, Romaniuk H, Patton GC (2011) Cannabis and progression to other substance use in young adults: findings from a 13-year prospective population-based study. J Epidemiol Community Health. doi: 10.1136/jech.2010.129056
75. RE Tarter L Kirisci A Mezzich JR Cornelius K Pajer M Vanyukov W Gardner T Blackson D Clark 2003 Neurobehavioral disinhibition in childhood predicts early age at onset of substance use disorder Am J Psychiatry 160 6 1078 1085 12777265 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1078
76. RE Tarter L Kirisci M Habeych M Reynolds M Vanyukov 2004 Neurobehavior disinhibition in childhood predisposes boys to substance use disorder by young adulthood: direct and mediated etiologic pathways Drug Alcohol Depend 73 2 121 132 14725951 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2003.07.004
77. PM Thorsby K Midthjell N Gjerlaugsen J Holmen KF Hanssen KI Birkeland JP Berg 2009 Comparison of genetic risk in three candidate genes (TCF7L2, PPARG, KCNJ11) with traditional risk factors for type 2 diabetes in a population-based study-the HUNT study Scand J Clin Lab Invest 69 2 282 287 10.1080/ 00365510802538188 18972257 10.1080/00365510802538188 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD1MXjvFOhtbw%3D
78. WR True AC Heath JF Scherrer B Waterman J Goldberg N Lin SA Eisen MJ Lyons MT Tsuang 1997 Genetic and environmental contributions to smoking Addiction 92 10 1277 1287 9489045 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02847.x 1:STN:280:DyaK1c7ltVejsQ%3D%3D
79. WR True H Xian JF Scherrer PA Madden KK Bucholz AC Heath SA Eisen MJ Lyons J Goldberg M Tsuang 1999 Common genetic vulnerability for nicotine and alcohol dependence in men Arch Gen Psychiatry 56 7 655 661 10401514 10.1001/archpsyc.56.7.655 1:STN:280:DyaK1MzivFOmtQ%3D%3D
80. MT Tsuang MJ Lyons JM Meyer T Doyle SA Eisen J Goldberg W True N Lin R Toomey L Eaves 1998 Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men: the role of drug-specific and shared vulnerabilities Arch Gen Psychiatry 55 11 967 972 9819064 10.1001/archpsyc.55.11.967 1:STN:280:DyaK1M%2FjsVeksQ%3D%3D
81. R West P Miller 2011 What is the purpose of diagnosing addiction or dependence and what does this mean for establishing diagnostic criteria? Addiction 106 5 863 865 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03377.x 21477225 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03377.x
82. World Health Organization (1992) International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision. World Health Organization, Geneva