The religious wave: Religion and domestic conflict from 1960 to 2009

Civil Wars

Volumn 14, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 141-158

  Fox, Jonathan ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84862539263     PISSN: 13698249     EISSN: 1743968X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13698249.2012.679492     Document Type: Article

References (99)

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10. Gabriel Almond, R. Scott Appleby and Emmanuel Sivan, Strong Religion: The Rise of Fundamentalism Around the World (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press 2003), pp.130-1.
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14. Monica Duffy Toft, 'Getting Religion? The Puzzling Case of Islam and Civil War', International Security 31/4 (2007) pp.97-131.
15. Alexander De Juan, 'A Pact with the Devil? Elite Alliances as Bases of Violent Religious Conflict', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31/12 (2008) pp.1120-35.
16. Jonathan Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late 20th Century: A General Theory (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2002).
17. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
18. Jonathan Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late 20th Century: A General Theory (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2002).
19. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
20. Emile Sahliyeh, Sangeeta Sinha and Vijayan Pillai, 'Modeling Ethnic Protest: The Case of the Middle East and Central Asia', African and Asian Studies 1/1 (2002) pp.3-21.
21. Isak Svensson, 'Fighting with Faith: Religion and Conflict Resolution in Civil Wars', Journal of Conflict Resolution 51/6 (2007) pp.930-49.
22. Monica Duffy Toft, 'Getting Religion? The Puzzling Case of Islam and Civil War', International Security 31/4 (2007) pp.97-131.
23. Isak Svensson and Emily Harding, 'How Holy Wars End: Exploring The Termination Patters of Conflicts with Religious Dimensions in Asia', Terrorism & Political Violence 23/2 (2011) pp.133-49.
24. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
25. Monica Duffy Toft, 'Getting Religion? The Puzzling Case of Islam and Civil War', International Security 31/4 (2007) pp.97-131.
26. Indra de Soysa and Ragnhild Nordas, 'Islam's Bloody Innards: Religion and Political Terror, 1980-2000', International Studies Quarterly 41/4 (2007) pp.927-43.
27. Tanja Ellingsen, 'Toward a Revival of Religion and Religious Clashes', Terrorism and Political Violence, 17/3, (2005) pp.305-32.
28. Erik Gartzke and Kristian S. Gleditsch, 'Identity and Conflict: The Ties that Bind and Differences that Divide', European Journal of International Relations 12/1 (2006) pp.53-87.
29. Susan Olzak, 'Does Globalization Breed Ethnic Discontent?' Journal of Conflict Resolution 55/1 (2011) pp.3-32.
30. Marta Reynal-Querol, 'Ethnicity, Political Systems, and Civil Wars', Journal of Conflict Resolution 46/1 (2002) pp.29-54.
31. Rudolph J. Rummel, 'Is Collective Violence Correlated with Social Pluralism?' Journal of Peace Research 34/2 (1997) pp.163-75.
32. Nicholas Sambanis, 'Do Ethnic and Nonethnic Civil Wars Have the Same Causes?' Journal of Conflict Resolution 45/3 (2001) pp.259-82.
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34. Paul Collier and Anne Hoeffler, 'On the Incidence of Civil War in Africa', Journal of Conflict Resolution 46/1 (2002) pp.13-28.
35. James D. Fearon and David D. Latin, 'Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War', American Political Science Review 97/1 (2003) pp.75-90.
36. Bethany Lacina, 'Explaining the Severity of Civil Wars', Journal of Conflict Resolution 50/2 (2006) pp.276-89.
37. Susanna Pearce, 'Religious Rage: A Quantitative Analysis of the Intensity of Religious Conflicts', Terrorism and Political Violence 17/3 (2005) pp.333-52.
38. Jonathan Fox, A World Survey of Religion and the State (New York: Cambridge University Press 2008).
39. Daniel Philpott, 'Has the Study of Global Politics Found Religion?' Annual Review of Political Science 12 (2009) pp.183-202.
40. Kenneth D. Wald and Clyde Wilcox, 'Getting Religion: Has Political Science Discovered the Faith Factor?' American Political Science Review 100/4 (2006) pp.523-9.
41. Jonathan Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late 20th Century: A General Theory (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2002).
42. Emile Sahliyeh (ed.), Religious Resurgence and Politics in the Contemporary World (New York: State University of New York Press 1990), p.3.
43. Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, 'The Return of Martyrdom: Honour, Death, and Immortality', Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 4/3 (2003) p.11.
44. Jonathan Fox, A World Survey of Religion and the State (New York: Cambridge University Press 2008).
45. Daniel Philpott, 'Has the Study of Global Politics Found Religion?' Annual Review of Political Science 12 (2009) pp.183-202.
46. Helen R. Ebaugh, 'Return of the Sacred: Reintegration Religion in the Social Sciences', Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41/3 (2002) pp.385-95.
47. Jeffrey K. Hadden, 'Toward Desacralizing Secularization Theory', Social Forces 65/3 (1987) pp.587-611.
48. Rodney Stark, 'Secularization, R.I.P.' Sociology of Religion 60/3 (1999) pp.249-73.
49. Jonathan Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late 20th Century: A General Theory (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2002).
50. Jack Miles, 'Religion and American Foreign Policy', Survival 46/1 (2004) pp.23-37.
51. Scott M. Thomas, The Global Resurgence of Religion and the Transformation of International Relations: The Struggle for the Soul of the Twenty-First Century (New York: Plagrave-Macmillan 2005).
52. Samuel P. Huntington, 'The Clash of Civilizations?' Foreign Affairs 72/3 (1993) pp.22-49.
53. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster 1996).
54. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
55. Samuel P. Huntington, 'Try Again: A Reply to Russett, Oneal, and Cox', Journal of Peace Research 37/5 (2000) pp.609-10.
56. Tanja Ellingsen, 'Colorful Community or Ethnic Witches' Brew? Multiethnicity and Domestic Conflict During and After the Cold War', Journal of Conflict Resolution 44/2 (2000) pp.228-49.
57. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
58. Jonathan Fox, 'The Increasing Role of Religion in State Failure: 1960-2004', Terrorism and Political Violence 19/3 (2007) pp.395-414.
59. Ted R. Gurr, 'Peoples Against the State: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System', International Studies Quarterly 38/3 (1994) pp.347-77.
60. Errol A. Henderson and J. David Singer, 'Civil War in the Post-Colonial World, 1946-92', Journal of Peace Research, 37/3 (2000) pp.275-99.
61. Philip G. Roeder, 'Clash of Civilizations and Escalation of Domestic Ethnopolitical Conflicts', Comparative Political Studies, 36/5 (2003) pp.509-40.
62. Nicholas Sambanis, 'Do Ethnic and Nonethnic Civil Wars Have the Same Causes?' Journal of Conflict Resolution 45/3 (2001) pp.259-82.
63. Mirjam E. Sørli, Nils Petter Gleditsch, and Håvard Strand, 'Why is There so Much Conflict in the Middle East?' Journal of Conflict Resolution 49/1 (2005) pp.141-65.
64. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? (Berkeley, CA: University of California 1993).
65. Mark Juergensmeyer, Global Rebellion: Religious Challenges to the Secular State, from Christian Militias to Al Qaeda (Berkely, CA: University of California Press 2008).
66. Many echo Juergensmeyer's arguments, including: Maha Azzam, 'Islamism Revisited', International Affairs 86/6 (2006) pp.1119-32.
67. John L. Esposito, 'Religion and Global Affairs: Political Challenges', SAIS Review, Summer-Fall (1998) pp.19-24.
68. Jeff Haynes, Religion in Global Politics (New York: Longman 1998).
69. Mahmood Monshipouri, 'The West's Modern Encounterwith Islam: FromDiscourse to Reality', Journal of Church and State 40/1 (1998) pp.25-56.
70. Vali Nasr, 'Religion and Global Affairs: Secular States and Religious Oppositions', SAIS Review Summer-Fall (1998) pp.32-37.
71. Yahya Sadowski, 'Political Islam: Asking theWrong Questions?' Annual Review of Political Science 9 (2006) pp.215-40.
72. David C. Rapoport, 'Modern Terror: The Four Waves', Current History (2001) pp.419-25.
73. David C. Rapoport, 'The Four Waves of Terror and September 11', Anthropoetics 8/1 (2002), online at .
74. David C. Rapoport, 'The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism' in Audrey Cronin and James Ludes (eds) Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press 2004), pp.46-73.
75. This last argument was related to me by David Rapoport in a conversation.
76. David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and Trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78/3 (1984) pp.658-77.
77. Karen Ransler and William R. Thompson, 'Looking for Waves of Terrorism', Terrorism and Political Violence 21/1 (2009) pp.28-41.
78. For more on this theory see Mark Sedgwick, 'Inspiration and the Origins of Global Waves of Terrorism', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 30/2 (2007) pp.97-112.
79. William R. Thompson, 'Emergent Violence, Global Wars, and Terrorism' in Tessaleno Devezas (ed.) Kondratieff Waves, Warfare and World Security (Amsterdam: IOS Press 2006), pp.185-94.
80. It is important to note that the PITF dataset includes data from 1955. This study begins in 1960 because of the low number of conflicts coded between 1955 and 1959. A copy of the source PITF dataset is available at . The religion data used in conjunction with the PITF dataset for this study combined with the PITF data is available at .
81. Political Instability Task Force website: .
82. Monty G. Marshall, Ted R. Gurr and Barbara Harff, 'Political Instability (State Failure) Problem Set: Internal Wars and Failures of Governance, 1955-2004', PITF website (2005) online at .
83. For a listing of the cases in the dataset see the 'Political Instability Task Force (PITF) Consolidated Problem Set, Historical State Armed Conflicts and Regime Crises, 1955-2009', online at the PITF website .
84. As is the case with any data collection of this type, it is possible to dispute a few of the cases that were coded and contend a few that were not coded should have been coded. However the project made a good faith effort to compile an accurate list of all relevant cases and at the very least this list of cases very closely resembles the 'true' list of cases to the extent that it is unlikely that any minor imperfections in the list would substantially influence the results of this study.
85. The following countries had multiple state failures coded in the same year, which were included as separate cases on this study. The joint Serb and Croat war against Bosnian government from 1992 to 1995 was broken up into two separate cases, one for Serbs and one for Croats. The Abkhaz and South Ossetian rebellion from 1991 to 1993 in Georgia was broken up into two separate cases, one for Abkhaz and one for South Ossetians. There was an overlap between 1990 and 1993 in two separate conflicts in India. The first involves a Sikh challenge against the government and the second the Kashmir region of the country.
86. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
87. Alexander De Juan, 'A Pact with the Devil? Elite Alliances as Bases of Violent Religious Conflict', Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 31/12 (2008) pp.1120-35.
88. A more detailed coding with the following categories exists: Catholic, Protestant, other Christian, Sunni Muslim, Shi'i Muslim, other Muslim, Buddhist, Animist, and other.
89. Jonathan Fox, Ethnoreligious Conflict in the Late 20th Century: A General Theory (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2002).
90. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
91. Jonathan Fox, 'The Increasing Role of Religion in State Failure: 1960-2004', Terrorism and Political Violence 19/3 (2007) pp.395-414.
92. Andrej Tusicisny, 'Civilizational Conflicts: More Frequent, Longer, and Bloodier?' Journal of Peace Research 41/4 (2004) pp.485-98.
93. Monica Duffy Toft, 'Getting Religion? The Puzzling Case of Islam and Civil War', International Security 31/4 (2007) pp.97-131.
94. These descriptions are based on the 'Political Instability Task Force (PITF) Consolidated Problem Set, Historical State Armed Conflicts and Regime Crises, 1955-2009'.
95. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
96. Jonathan Fox, Religion, Civilization and Civil War: 1945 Through the New Millennium (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books 2004).
97. Jonathan Fox, A World Survey of Religion and the State (New York: Cambridge University Press 2008).
98. John L. Esposito, 'Religion and Global Affairs: Political Challenges', SAIS Review, Summer-Fall (1998) pp.19-24.
99. Philip L. Ritcheson, 'Iranian Military Resurgence: Scope, Motivations, and Implications for Regional Security', Armed Forces and Society 21/4 (1995) pp.573-92.