Unequal motherhood: Racial-ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in cesarean sections in the United States

Social Problems

Volumn 59, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 207-227

  Roth, Louise Marie ^a   Henley, Megan M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

Author keywords

Birth; Cesarean section; Choice; Health disparities; Inequality

Indexed keywords

EID: 84860662608     PISSN: 00377791     EISSN: 15338533     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/sp.2012.59.2.207     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Abraham, Jean, Brian Sick, Joseph Anderson, Andrea Berg, Chad Dehmer, and Amanda Tufano. 2011. "Selecting a Provider: What Factors Influence Patients' Decision Making?" Journal of Healthcare Management 56(2):114-5.
2. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). 1999. "ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 54: Vaginal Birth After Previous Cesarean." Obstetrics and Gynecology 104(1):203-12.
3. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) 2007. "Committee Opinion No. 394, December 2007: Cesarean Delivery on Maternal Request." Obstetrics and Gynecology 110(6):1501.
4. Amnesty International. 2010. Deadly Delivery: The Maternal Health Care Crisis in the U.S.A. New York: Amnesty International USA.
5. Aron, David C., Howard S. Gordon, David L. DiGiuseppe, Dwain L. Harper, and Gary E. Rosenthal. 2000. "Variations in Risk-Adjusted Cesarean Delivery Rates According to Race and Health Insurance." Medical Care 38(1):35-44.
6. Aronowitz, Robert. 2008. "Framing Disease: An Underappreciated Mechanism for the Social Patterning of Health." Social Science and Medicine 67(1):1-9. (Pubitemid 351749501)
7. Aved, Barbara M., Leslie S. Cummings, Nancy Findeisen, and Mary M. Irwin. 1993. "Barriers to Prenatal Care for Low-Income Women." The Western Journal of Medicine 158(5):493-8. (Pubitemid 23146517)
8. Balsa, Ana I. and Thomas G. McGuire. 2001. "Statistical Discrimination in Health Care." Journal of Health Economics 20:881-907. (Pubitemid 33010780)
9. Balsa, Ana I. and Thomas G. McGuire. 2003. "Prejudice, Clinical Uncertainty and Stereotyping as Sources of Health Disparities." Journal of Health Economics 22:89-116. (Pubitemid 35461917)
10. Balsa, Ana I., Thomas G. McGuire, and Lisa S.Meredith. 2005. "Testing for Statistical Discrimination in Health Care." Health Services Research 40(1):227-52. (Pubitemid 40229358)
11. Barber, Emma L., Lisbet S. Lundsberg, Kathleen Belanger, Christian M. Pettker, Edmund F. Funai, and Jessica L. Illuzzi. 2011. "Indications Contributing to the Increasing Cesarean Delivery Rate." Obstetrics and Gynecology 11(1):29-38.
12. Beckett, Katherine. 2005. "Choosing Cesarean: Feminism and the Politics of Childbirth in the United States." Feminist Theory 6(3):251-75. (Pubitemid 41755941)
13. Braun, Virginia. 2009. "'TheWomen are Doing it for Themselves': The Rhetoric of Choice and Agency around Female Genital 'Cosmetic Surgery'." Australian Feminist Studies 24(60):233-49.
14. Braveman, Paula, Susan Egerter, Frances Edmonston, and Mary Verdon. 1995. "Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Likelihood of Cesarean Delivery, California." American Journal of Public Health 85(5):625-30.
15. Brink, Susan. 2002. "Too Posh to Push? Cesarean Sections Have Spiked Dramatically. Progress or Convenience?" U.S. News and World Report, July 28. Retrieved July 10, 2009 (http:///health.usnews.com/usnews/health/articles/ 020805/archive-022).
16. Brownlee, Susan. 2007. Overtreated:Why Too Much Medicine is Making Us Sicker and Poorer. New York: Bloomsbury.
17. Burgess, Diana J., Steven S. Fu, and Michelle van Ryn. 2004. "Why Do Providers Contribute to Disparities and What Can Be Done About It?" Journal of General Internal Medicine 19(11):1154-9. (Pubitemid 39552586)
18. Burns, Lawton R., Stacie E. Geller, and Douglas R. Wholey. 1995. "The Effect of Physician Factors on the Cesarean Section Decision." Medical Care 33(4):365-82.
19. California Department of Public Health. 2011. The California Pregnancy-Associated Mortality Review: Report from 2002 and 2003 Maternal Death Reviews. Sacramento: California Department of Public Health, Maternal Child and Adolescent Health Division.
20. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 2006. "Review of the National Center for Health Statistics Natality Statistics Program." Retrieved August 6, 2010 (www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/bsc/BSC-NatalityProgramReview.pdf).
21. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 2007. "Maternal Mortality and Related Concepts: Analytical and Epidemiological Studies." Vital and Health Statistics 3(33). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
22. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 2009. "Births: Preliminary Data for 2007." National Vital Statistics Reports 57(12). Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics.
23. Cohen, Hillel W. and Mary E.Northridge. 2000. "Getting Political: Racismand Urban Health." American Journal of Public Health 90(6):841-2. (Pubitemid 30366961)
24. Cook, Cynthia A., Kimberly L. Selig, Barbara J. Wedge, and Erika A. Gohn-Baube. 1999. "Access Barriers and the Use of Prenatal Care by Low-Income, Inner-City Women." Social Work 44(2):129-39.
25. Cornelius, Llewellyn J., Kieva A. Bankins, and Stephanie D. Brown. 2008. "Perceptions of Physicians in Medicaid Managed Care Practices regarding Working with African American and Latino Patients." African American Research Perspectives 12(2):131-8.
26. Danel, Isabella, Cynthia Berg, Christopher H. Johnson, and Hani Atrash. 2003. "Magnitude of Maternal Morbidity during Labor and Delivery: United States, 1993-1997." American Journal of Public Health 93(4):631-4. (Pubitemid 36790884)
27. Daniels, Pamela, Godfrey Fuji Noe, and Robert Mayberry. 2006. "Barriers to Prenatal Care among BlackWomen of Low Socioeconomic Status." American Journal of Health Behavior 30(2):188-98. (Pubitemid 43471839)
28. Davis-Floyd, Robbie E. 2003. Birth as anAmerican Rite of Passage. 2d ed. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
29. Declercq, Eugene R. 2009. "Two Decades of Birthing Trends in the U.S. and theWorld." Presented at Partners in Perinatal Health Conference, May 18. Retrieved August 11, 2010 (www.piphma.org/docs/declercq.pdf).
30. Declercq, Eugene R., Carol Sakala, Maureen P. Corry, and Sandra Applebaum. 2006. Listening toMothers II: Report of the Second National U.S. Survey of Women's Childbearing Experiences. NewYork: Childbirth Connection.
31. DiGiuseppe, David L., David C. Aron, Lorin Ranbom, Dwain L. Harper and Gary E. Rosenthal. 2002. "Reliability of Birth Certificate Data: A Multi-Hospital Comparison to Medical Records Information." Maternal and Child Health Journal 6(3):169-79.
32. Dressler, William W., Kathryn S. Oths, and Clarence C. Gravlee. 2005. "Race and Ethnicity in Public Health Research: Models to Explain Health Disparities." Annual Review of Anthropology 34:231-52. (Pubitemid 41638308)
33. Dubay, Lisa, Robert Kaestner, and Timothy Waldmann. 1999. "The Impact of Malpractice Fears on Cesarean Section Rates." Journal of Health Economics 18(4):491-522. (Pubitemid 29343873)
34. Dulitzki, Mordechai, David Soriano, Eyal Schiff, Angela Chetrit, Shlomo Mashiach, and Daniel S. Seidman. 1998. "Effect of Very Advanced Maternal Age on Pregnancy Outcome and Rate of Cesarean Delivery." Obstetrics and Gynecology 92(6):935-9. (Pubitemid 28536106)
35. Ecker, Jeffrey L., Katherine T. Chen, Amy P. Cohen, Laura E. Riley, and Ellice S. Lieberman. 2001. "Increased Risk of Cesarean Delivery with Advancing Maternal Age: Indications and Associated Factors in Nulliparous Women." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 185(4):883-7. (Pubitemid 32980531)
36. Feinstein, Jonathan S. 1993. "The Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Health: A Review of the Literature." The Milbank Quarterly 71:279-322.
37. Flegal, Katherine M., Margaret D. Carroll, Cynthia L. Ogden, and Clifford L. Johnson. 2002. "Prevalence and Trends in Obesity among US Adults, 1999-2000." Journal of the American Medical Association 288:1723-7.
38. Ford, Jessie, Jagteshwar Grewal, RafaelMikolajczyk, Susan Meikle, and Jun Zhang. 2008. "Primary Cesarean Delivery among ParousWomen in the United States, 1990-2003." Obstetrics and Gynecology 112:1235-41.
39. Frank, Reanne, W. Parker Frisbie, and Starling G. Pullum. 2000. "Race/Ethnic Differentials in Heavy Weight and Cesarean Births." Population Research and Policy Review 19:459-75. (Pubitemid 32430776)
40. Frisbie, W. Parker, Seung-Eun Song, Daniel A. Powers, and Julie A. Street. 2004. "The Increasing Racial Disparity in Infant Mortality : Respiratory Distress Syndrome and Other Causes." Demography 21(4):773-800. (Pubitemid 40102740)
41. Gawande, Atul. 2009. "The Cost Conundrum: What a Texas Town Can Teach Us about Health Care." The New Yorker, June 1. Retrieved June 1, 2009 (www.newyorker.com/reporting/2009/06/01/090601fa-fact-gawande).
42. Gemmel, David James. 2002. "Association of Temporal Variations and Hospital Ownership with Cesarean Sections." Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology, Kent State University, Liverpool OH.
43. Getahun, Darios, Daniel Strickland, Jean M. Lawrence, Michael J. Fassett, Corinna Koebnick, and Steven J. Jacobsen. 2009. "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Trends in Primary Cesarean Delivery Based on Indications." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 201(4):422e1-7.
44. Getahun, Darios, Lillian M. Kaminisky, Denise A. Elsasser, Russell S. Kirby, Cande V. Ananth, and Anthony M. Vintzileos. 2007. "Changes in Prepregnancy Body Mass Index between Pregnancies and Risk of Primary Cesarean Delivery." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 197:376e1-7.
45. Gill, Rosalind C. 2007. "Critical Respect: The Difficulties and Dilemmas of Agency and 'Choice' for Feminism." European Journal of Women's Studies 14(1):59-80.
46. Goer, Henci. 1995. Obstetric Myths versus Research Realities: A Guide to the Medical Literature.Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey.
47. Gossman, Ginger L., Jutta M. Joesch, and Koray Tanfer. 2006. "Trends in Maternal Request Cesarean Delivery from 1991 to 2004." Obstetrics and Gynecology 108(3):784-5.
48. Gould, Jeffrey B., Becky Davey, and Randall S. Stafford. 1989. "Socio-Economic Differences in Rates of Cesarean Section." New England Journal of Medicine 321(4):233-9. (Pubitemid 19187165)
49. Harris, Katherine M. 2003. "How Do Patients Choose Physicians? Evidence from a National Survey of Enrollees in Employment-Related Health Plans." Health Services Research 38(2):711-32. (Pubitemid 36570036)
50. Hibbard, Judith H. and Jacquelyn J. Jewett. 1997. "Will Quality Report Cards Help Consumers?" Health Affairs 16(3):218-28. (Pubitemid 127463732)
51. Hoerger, Thomas J. and Leslie Z. Howard. 1995. "Search Behavior and Choice of Physician in the Market for Prenatal Care." Medical Care 33(4):332-49.
52. Hopkins, Kristine. 2000. "Are Brazilian Women Really Choosing to Deliver by Cesarean?" Social Science and Medicine 51:725-40. (Pubitemid 30316326)
53. Hummer, Robert A. 1996. "Black-Whites Differences in Health and Mortality: A Review and Conceptual Model." The Sociological Quarterly 37(1):105-25. (Pubitemid 126333399)
54. Hurst, Marsha and Pamela S. Summey. 1984. "Childbirth and Social Class: The Case of Cesarean Delivery." Social Science and Medicine 18(8):621-31.
55. Institute ofMedicine, 2009.Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines.Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
56. Keeler, Emmett B. and Mollyann Brodie. 1993. "Economic Incentives in the Choice between Vaginal Delivery and Cesarean Section." The Milbank Quarterly 71(3):365-404.
57. Klein, Michael C. 2005. "Obstetrician's Fear of Childbirth: How Did It Happen?" Birth 32(3):207-9.
58. Kreps, Gary L. 2006. "Communication and Racial Inequities in Health Care." The American Behavioral Scientist 49(6):760-74. (Pubitemid 43170634)
59. Kuklina, Elena V., Susan F. Meikle, Denise J. Jamieson, Maura K. Whiteman, Wanda D. Barfield, Susan D. Hillis, and Samuel F. Posner. 2009. "Severe ObstetricMorbidity in the United States: 1998-2005." Obstetrics and Gynecology 113(2):293-9.
60. LaVeist, Thomas A. 1996. "Why We Should Continue to Study Race But Do a Better Job: An Essay on Race, Racism, and Health." Ethnicity and Disease 6:21-29. (Pubitemid 126735842)
61. LaVeist, Thomas A. 2000. "On the Study of Race, Racism, and Health: A Shift from Description to Explanation." International Journal of Health Services 30(1):217-19.
62. LaVeist, Thomas A. 2005. "Disentangling Race and Socioeconomic Status: A Key to Understanding Health Inequalities." Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 82(2):iii26-34.
63. LaVeist, Thomas A., JohnM.Wallace, and Daniel L. Howard. 1995. "The Color Line and the Health of African Americans." Humboldt Journal of Social Relations 21(2):119-37.
64. LaVeist, Thomas A., Nicole C. Rolley, and Chamberlain Diala. 2003. "Prevalence and Patterns of Discrimination among U.S. Health Care Consumers." International Journal of Health Services 33(2):331-44. (Pubitemid 36648741)
65. Lazarus, Ellen S. 1994. "What Do WomenWant? Issues of Choice, Control, and Class in Pregnancy and Childbirth." Medical Anthropology Quarterly 8(1):25-46.
66. Leeman, Lawrence M. and Lauren A. Plante. 2006. "Patient-Choice Vaginal Delivery?" Annals of Family Medicine 4(3):265-8. (Pubitemid 43824802)
67. Lerchl, Alexander and Sarah C. Reinhard. 2008. "Where Are the Sunday Babies? II. Declining Weekend Birth Rates in Switzerland." Naturwissenschaften 95(2):161-4.
68. Lippman, Abby. 1999. "Choice as a Risk to Women's Health." Health, Risk and Society 1(3):281-91.
69. Lupton, Deborah, CamDonaldson, and Peter Lloyd. 1991. "Caveat Emptor or Blissful Ignorance? Patients and the Consumerist Ethos." Social Science and Medicine 33(5):559-68.
70. Lutfey, Karen and Jeremy Freese. 2005. "Toward some Fundamentals of Fundamental Causality: Socioeconomic Status and Health in the Routine Clinic Visit for Diabetes." American Journal of Sociology 110(5):1326-72. (Pubitemid 41053731)
71. Macinko, James A., Leiyu Shi, Barbara Starfield, and John T.Wulu, Jr. 2003. "Income Inequality and Health: A Critical Review of the Literature." Medical Care Research and Review 60(4):407-52.
72. Mahoney, Sheila F. and Lorraine Halinka Malcoe. 2005. "Cesarean Delivery in Native American Women: Are Low Rates Explained by Practices Common to the Indian Health Service?" Birth 32(3):170-8.
73. Malat, Jennifer. 2001. "Social Distance and Patients' Rating of Healthcare Providers." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 42:360-72. (Pubitemid 33597750)
74. Malat, Jennifer. 2006. "Expanding Research on the Racial Disparity inMedical Treatment with Ideas from Sociology." Health 10(3):303-21. (Pubitemid 44392675)
75. Martin, Joyce A., Brady E. Hamilton, and Michelle J. K. Osterman. 2012. "Three Decades of Twin Births in the United States, 1980-2009." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: National Vital Statistics Reports 80:1-8. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
76. Maserejian Nancy N., Karen E. Lutfey, and John B. McKinlay. 2009. "Do Physicians Attend to Base Rates? Prevalence Data and Statistical Discrimination in the Diagnosis of Coronary Heart Disease." Health Services Research 44(6):1933-49.
77. Minino, Arialdi M., Melonie P. Heron, Sherry L. Murphy, and Kenneth D. Kochanek. 2007. "Deaths: Final Data for 2004." U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: National Vital Statistics Reports 55(19): 1-119. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
78. Mitler, Lloyd K., John A. Rizzo, and Sarah M. Horwitz. 2000. "Physician Gender and Cesarean Sections." Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 53:1030-5.
79. Moore, Mary Lou. 2005. "Increasing Cesarean Birth Rates: A Clash of Cultures?" The Journal of Perinatal Education 14(4):5-8.
80. Myers, Michael J. 2004. "ACOG's Vaginal Birth After Cesarean Standard: AMarket Restraint Without Remedy?" South Dakota Law Review 49:526-40.
81. Nelson, Margaret K. 1983. "Working-Class Women, Middle-Class Women, and Models of Childbirth." Social Problems 30(3):284-97.
82. Newton, Edward R. and Catherine S. Higgins. 1989. "Factors Associated with Hospital-Specific Cesarean Birth Rates." Journal of Reproductive Medicine 34:407-11. (Pubitemid 19163604)
83. Ogden, Cynthia L., Margaret D. Carroll, Lester R. Curtin, Margaret A. McDowell, Carolyn J. Tabak, and Katherine M. Flegal. 2006. "Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity in the United States, 1999-2004." Journal of the American Medical Association 295:1549-55.
84. Pappas, Gregory, Susan Queen, Wilbur Hadden, and Gail Fisher. 1993. "The Increasing Disparity in Mortality between Socioeconomic Groups in the United States." New England Journal of Medicine 329:103-9. (Pubitemid 23188825)
85. Park, Alice. 2008. "Choosy Mothers Choose Caesareans." Time Magazine, April 17. Retrieved August 8, 2011 (www.time.com/time/magazine/ article/0, 9171, 1731904, 00.html).
86. Peipert, Jeffrey F. and Michael B. Bracken. 1993. "Maternal Age: An Independent Risk Factor for Cesarean Delivery." Obstetrics and Gynecology 81(2):200-5. (Pubitemid 23050154)
87. Perkins, Barbara Bridgeman. 1998. The Medical Delivery Business: Health Reform, Childbirth, and the Economic Order. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
88. Perloff, Richard M., Bette Bonder, George B. Ray, Eileen Berlin Ray, and Laura A. Siminoff. 2006. "Doctor-Patient Communication, Cultural Competence, and Minority Health: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives." American Behavioral Scientist 49(6):835-52. (Pubitemid 43170638)
89. Placek, Paul J. and Selma M. Taffel. 1988. "Recent Patterns in Cesarean Delivery in the United States." Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinical North America 15:607-27. (Pubitemid 19010686)
90. Plante, Lauren A. 2009. "Mommy, What Did You Do in the Industrial Revolution? Meditations on the Rising Cesarean Rate." The International Journal of Feminist Approaches to Bioethics 2(1):140-7.
91. Porreco, Richard P. and James A. Thorp. 1996. "The Cesarean Birth Epidemic: Trends, Causes, and Solutions." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 175:369-74. (Pubitemid 26390994)
92. Potter, Joseph E., Elza Berquo, Ignez H. O. Perpetuo, Ondina Fachel Leal, Kristine Hopkins, Marta Rovery Souza, and Maria Celia de Carvalho Formiga. 2001. "Unwanted Cesarean Sections among Public and Private Patients in Brazil: Prospective Study." British Medical Journal 323(7322):1155-9.
93. Rosenberg, Terry J., Samantha Garbers, Wendy Chavkin, and Mary Ann Chiasson. 2003. "Prepregnancy Weight and Adverse Perinatal Outcomes in an Ethnically Diverse Population." Obstetrics and Gynecology 102:1022-7. (Pubitemid 37412294)
94. Rothman, Barbara Katz. 1982. In Labor: Women and Power in the Birthplace. New York: W.W. Norton and Co.
95. Schnittker, Jason. 2004. "Social Distance in the Clinical Encounter: Interactional and Sociodemographic Foundations for Mistrust in Physicians." Social Psychology Quarterly 67(3):217-35. (Pubitemid 39443178)
96. Shi, Leiyu. 2001. "The Convergence of Vulnerable Characteristics and Health Insurance in the U.S." Social Science and Medicine 53:519-29. (Pubitemid 32547468)
97. Simonds, Wendy, Barbara Katz Rothman, and Bari Meltzer Norman. 2007. Laboring On: Birth in Transition in the United States. New York: Routledge.
98. Song, Sora. 2004. "Too Posh to Push?" Time Magazine, April 19. Retrieved April 19, 2004 (www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0, 9171, 993857, 00.html).
99. Stafford, Randall S. 1991. "The Impact of Nonclinical Factors on Repeat Cesarean Section." Journal of the American Medical Association 265:59-63.
100. Stafford, Randall S., Sean D. Sullivan, Lawrence B. Gardner. 1993. "Trends in Cesarean Section Use in California, 1983 to 1990." American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 168:1297-1302. (Pubitemid 23122184)
101. Teberg, A. J., R. Settlage, J. E. Hodgman, Y. King, and T. Aguilar. 1989. "Maternal Factors Associated with Delivery of Infants with Birthweight Less than 2000 Grams in a Low Socioeconomic Population." Journal of Perinatology: Official Journal of the California Perinatal Association 9(3):291-5.
102. Tucker, Myra J., Cynthia J. Berg, William M. Callaghan, and Jason Hsia. 2007. "The Black-White Disparity in Pregnancy-Related Mortality from 5 Conditions: Differences in Prevalence and Case-Fatality Rates." American Journal of Public Health 97(2):247-51. (Pubitemid 47279370)
103. Tussing, A. Dale and Martha A.Wojtowycz. 1997. "Malpractice, DefensiveMedicine, and Obstetric Behavior." Medical Care 35(2):172-91.
104. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics. 2008. Natality Detail File, 2004 (UNITED STATES) [computer file.]. ICPSR04707-v1. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, National Center for Health Statistics [producer], 2005. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor], 2008-08-13.
105. van Ryn, Michelle and Steven S. Fu. 2003. "Pavedwith Good Intentions: Do Public Health and Human Service Providers Contribute to Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health?" American Journal of Public Health 93(2): 248-55. (Pubitemid 36159390)
106. Wagner, Marsden. 2006. Born in the USA: How a BrokenMaternity System Must Be Fixed to Put Women and Children First. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
107. Williams, David R. 1999. "Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Health: The Added Effects of Racism and Discrimination." Annals New York Academy of Sciences 896:173-88. (Pubitemid 30040247)
108. Williams, David R. and Pamela Braboy Jackson. 2005. "Social Sources of Racial Disparities in Health." Health Affairs 24(2):325-34. (Pubitemid 40532946)
109. World Health Organization (WHO). 1985. "Appropriate Technology for Birth." Lancet: 436-7.
110. World Health Organization (WHO). 2009. Monitoring Emergency Obstetric Care: A Handbook. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press.
111. World Health Organization (WHO). 2010. Trends in MaternalMortality: 1990-2008 Estimates Developed by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA and The World Bank. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press. Annex 1. Retrieved December 30, 2010 (http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241500265-eng.pdf).