Emotional influences on judgments of legal blame: How they happen, whether they should, and what to do about it

Nebraska Symposium on Motivation

Volumn 56, Issue , 2010, Pages 45-96

  Feigenson, Neal ^a  

^a QUINNIPIAC UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84858769256     PISSN: 01467875     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-0696-0_3     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (168)

1. Adler M (2000) Expressive theories of law: a skeptical overview. Univ Pa Law Rev 148:1363-1501
2. Alicke M (2000) Culpable control and the psychology of blame. Psychol Bull 126:556-574
3. American Bar Association (2005) Principles for juries and jury trials. Author, Chicago, IL
4. Arndt J, Cook A, Lieberman J, Solomon S (2005) Terror management in the courtroom. Psychol Public Policy Law 11:407-438
5. Associated Press (June 28, 2007) Black teen convicted in beating of white student. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/19488285/. Last Accessed 10 Mar 2008
6. Auslander P (1999) Liveness. Routledge, London
7. Ball D (1997) Theater tips and strategies for jury trials. National Institute for Trial Advocacy, South Bend, IN
8. Bandes S (1996) Empathy, narrative, and victim impact statements. Univ Chic Law Rev 63:361-412 (Pubitemid 126105972)
9. Bandes S (1999) The passions of law. NYU Press, New York
10. Bandes S (2007) The lessons of Capturing the Friedmans: moral panic, institutional denial and due process. J Law Cult Humanit 3:293-319
11. Baron R, Kenny A (1986) The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol 51:1173-1182
12. Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79 (1986)
13. Baumeister R, Vohs K, Tice D (2006) Emotional influences on decision making. In: Forgas J (ed) Affect in social thinking and behavior. Psychology Press, New York, pp 143-159
14. Berkowitz L, Jaffee S, Jo E, Troccoli B (2000) In: Forgas J (ed) Feeling and thinking: the role of affect in social cognition. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 131-152
15. Blumenthal J (2005a) Does mood influence moral judgment? An empirical test with legal and policy implications. Law Psychol Rev 29:1-28 (Pubitemid 43285001)
16. Blumenthal J (2005b) Law and the emotions: the problems of affective forecasting. Indiana Law J 80:155-238 (Pubitemid 40816432)
17. Bodenhausen G (1993) Emotions, arousal, and stereotypic judgments: a heuristic model of affect and stereotyping. In: Mackie D, Hamilton D (eds) Affect, cognition, and stereotyping. Academic, San Diego, CA, pp 13-37
18. Bodenhausen G, Sheppard L, Kramer G (1994) Negative affect and social judgment: the differential impact of anger and sadness. Eur J Soc Psychol 24:45-62
19. Bornstein BH (1994) David, Goliath, and Reverend Bayes: prior beliefs about defendants' status in personal injury cases. Appl Cogn Psychol 8:232-258
20. Bornstein BH (1998) From compassion to compensation: the effect of injury severity on mock jurors' liability judgments. J Appl Soc Psychol 28:1477-1502
21. Bower G (1981) Mood and memory. Am Psychol 36:129-148
22. Bower G, Forgas J (2001) Mood and social memory. In: Forgas J (ed) Handbook of affect and social cognition. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp 95-120
23. Bright D, Goodman-Delahunt J (2006) Gruesome evidence and emotion: Anger, blame, and jury decision-making. Law Hum Behav 30:183-202 (Pubitemid 44257240)
24. Burns R (1999) A theory of the trial. Princeton University Press, Princeton
25. Butler P (1995) Racially based jury nullification: black power in the criminal justice system. Yale Law J 105:677-725
26. Carey v. Musladin, 549 U.S.70 (2006)
27. Carney B, Feigenson N (2004) Visual persuasion in the Michael Skakel trial: Enhancing advocacy through interactive media presentations. Crim Justice 19:22-35
28. Chaiken S, Trope Y (1999) Dual-process theories in social psychology. Guilford Press, New York
29. Clore G, Schwarz N, Conway M (1994) Affective causes and consequences of social information processing. In: Wyer R, Srull T (eds) Handbook of social cognition, vol 1, 2nd edn. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 323-417
30. Cooper J, Bennett E, Sukel H (1996) Complex scientific testimony: how do jurors make decisions? Law Hum Behav 20:379-394 (Pubitemid 26295204)
31. Damasio A (1994) Descartes' error. Grosset/Putnam, New York
32. Deck v. Missouri, 544 U.S. 622 (2005)
33. Dershowitz A (1996) Life is not a dramatic narrative. In: Brooks P, Gewirtz P (eds) Law's stories. Yale University Press, New Haven, pp 99-105
34. DeSteno D, Petty R, Wegener D, Rucker R (2000) Beyond valence in the perception of likelihood: the role of emotion specificity. J Pers Soc Psychol 78:397-416
35. DeSteno D, Petty R, Rucker D, Wegener D, Braverman J (2004) Discrete emotions and persuasion: the role of emotion-induced expectancies. J Pers Soc Psychol 86:43-56 (Pubitemid 38134902)
36. Diamond SS, Casper J (1992) Blindfolding the jury to verdict consequences: Damages, experts, and the civil jury. Law Soc'y Rev 26:513-563
37. Douglas M (1993) Emotion and culture in theories of justice. Econ Soc 22:501-515
38. Douglas K, Lyon D, Ogloff J (1997) The impact of graphic photographic evidence on mock jurors' decisions in a murder trial: probative or prejudicial? Law Hum Behav 21:485-501 (Pubitemid 27491944)
39. Dunn J, Schweitzer M (2005) Feeling and believing: the influence of emotion on trust. J Pers Soc Psychol 88:736-748 (Pubitemid 40735499)
40. Edwards K, Bryan T (1997) Judgmental biases produced by instructions to disregard: the (paradoxical) case of emotional information. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 23:849-864
41. Ehrlinger J, Gilovich T, Ross L (2005) Peering into the bias blind spot: people's assessments of bias in themselves and others. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 31:680-692 (Pubitemid 40622563)
42. Eisenberg T, Hannaford-Agor P, Hans V, Waters N, Munsterman GT, Schwab S, Wells M (2005) Judge-jury agreement in civil cases: a partial replication of Kalven and Zeisel's The American Jury. J Empirical Leg Stud 2:171-206
43. Federal Rules of Evidence (2008) West, St. Paul, MN
44. Feigenson N (1997) Sympathy and legal judgment. Tenn Law Rev 65:1-78
45. Feigenson N (2000) Legal blame: how jurors think and talk about accidents. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC
46. Feigenson N (2001) "Another thing needful": exploring emotions in law [review of Susan Bandes, ed., The passions of law]. Const Comment 18:445-461
47. Feigenson N, Park J (2006) Emotions and attributions of legal responsibility and blame: a research review. Law Hum Behav 30:143-161 (Pubitemid 44257238)
48. Feigenson N, Spiesel C (2009) Law on display: the digital transformation of legal persuasion and judgment. NYU Press, New York
49. Feigenson N, Park J, Salovey P (1997) Effect of victim blameworthiness and outcome severity on attributions of responsibility and damage awards in comparative negligence cases. Law Hum Behav 21:597-617 (Pubitemid 28010943)
50. Feigenson N, Park J, Salovey P (2001) The role of emotions in comparative negligence judgments. J Appl Soc Psychol 31:576-603
51. Forgas J (2000) Affect and information processing strategies. In: Forgas J (ed) Feeling and thinking. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 253-280
52. Forgas J, Bower G (1987) Mood effects on person perception judgments. J Pers Soc Psychol 53:53-60
53. Forgas J, Moylan S (1987) After the movies: transient moods and social judgments. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 13:467-477
54. Funder D (1987) Errors and mistakes: evaluating the accuracy of social judgment. Psychol Bull 101:75-90
55. Gallagher D, Clore G (1985, May) Effects of fear and anger on judgments of risk and evaluations of blame. Unpublished paper presented at proceedings of Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago
56. Gewirtz P (1988) Aeschylus' law. Harv Law Rev 101:1043-1055
57. Gigerenzer G, Engel C (2006) Heuristics and the law. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
58. Gilbert D, Wilson T (2000) Miswanting. In: Forgas J (ed) Feeling and thinking. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 178-197
59. Glanzer M, Cunitz A (1966) Two storage mechanisms in free recall. J Verbal Learn Verbal Behav 5:531-560
60. Goldberg J, Lerner J, Tetlock P (1999) Rage and reason: the psychology of the intuitive prosecutor. Eur J Soc Psychol 29:781-795
61. Goodenough O (2008, May) Institutions, emotions and law: an essay on a Goldilocks problem. Unpublished paper presented at conference on Emotion in Context, Chicago
62. Goodenough O, Prehn K (2004) A neuroscientific approach to normative judgment in law and justice. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B 359:1709-1726 (Pubitemid 39606379)
63. Greene E (1999) The many guises of victim impact evidence and effects on jurors' judgments. Psychol Crime Law 5:331-348
64. Greene J, Haidt J (2002) How (and where) does moral judgment work? Trends Cogn Sci 6:517-523 (Pubitemid 35430390)
65. Greene J, Nystrom L, Engell A, Darley J, Cohen J (2004) The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron 44:389-400 (Pubitemid 39346260)
66. Haidt J (2001) The emotional dog and its rational tail: a social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychol Rev 108:814-834 (Pubitemid 33604149)
67. Haidt J (2003) The emotional dog does learn new tricks: a reply to Pizarro and Bloom (2003). Psychol Rev 110:197-198 (Pubitemid 37170698)
68. Haidt J (2007) The new synthesis in moral psychology. Science 316:998-1001
69. Haidt J, Bjorklund F (2008) Social intuitionists answer six questions about moral psychology. In: Sinnott-Armstrong W (ed) Moral psychology, vol 2. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 181-217
70. Han S, Lerner J (in press) Decision making. In: Sander D, Scherer K (eds) Oxford companion to the affective sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford
71. Hans V, Sweigart K (1993) Jurors' views of civil lawyers: implications for courtroom communication. Indiana Law J 68:1297-1332
72. Hastie R (2001) Emotions in jurors' decisions. Brooklyn Law Rev 66:991-1009
73. Hastie R, Penrod S, Pennington N (1983) Inside the juror. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
74. Hirshberger G (2006) Terror management and attribution of blame to innocent victims: reconciling compassionate and defensive responses. J Pers Soc Psychol 91:832-844
75. Hochschild A (1983) The managed heart. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA
76. Holland M, Lanier A (2007, July 31) Racist frame-up in Louisiana: the case of the Jena Six. http://www.wsws.org/articles/2007/jul2007/jena-j31.shtml. Last Accessed 11 Mar 2008
77. Holmes O (1881/1963) The common law. Little, Brown & Company, Boston
78. Horowitz I, Kerr N, Park E, Gockel C (2006) Chaos in the courtroom reconsidered: emotional bias and juror nullification. Law Hum Behav 30:163-181 (Pubitemid 44257239)
79. Jena Six Legal Case (2008) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jena-Six#Jena- Six-legal-case. Last Accessed 3 Sept 2008
80. Kahan D, Nussbaum M (1996) Two conceptions of emotion in criminal law. Columbia Law Rev 96:269-374 (Pubitemid 126059424)
81. Kahneman D, Frederick S (2002) Representativeness revisited: attribute substitution in intuitive judgment. In: Gilovich T, Griffin D, Kahneman D (eds) Heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 49-81
82. Kalven H, Zeisel H (1966) The American jury. Little, Brown & Company Boston
83. Kassin S, Garfield D (1991) Blood and guts: general and trial specific effects of videotaped crime scenes on mock jurors. J Appl Soc Psychol 21:1456-1472
84. Kaufmann G, Drevland G, Wessel E, Overskeid G, Magnussen S (2003) The importance of being earnest: displayed emotions and witness credibility. Appl Cogn Psychol 17:21-34 (Pubitemid 39517235)
85. Keltner D, Ellsworth P, Edwards K (1993) Beyond simple pessimism: effects of sadness and anger on social perception. J Pers Soc Psychol 64:740-752
86. Keltner D, Horberg EJ, Oveis C (2006) Emotions as moral intuitions. In: Forgas J (ed) Affect in social thinking and behavior. Psychology Press, New York, pp 161-175
87. Kramer G, Kerr N, Carroll J (1990) Pretrial publicity, judicial remedies, and jury bias. Law Hum Behav 14:409-438
88. Kruglanski A (1989) Lay epistemics and human knowledge. Plenum Press, New York
89. Krulewitch v. United States, 336 U.S. 440 (1949)
90. Landsman S, Rakos R (1994) A preliminary inquiry into the effect of potentially biasing information on judges and jurors in civil litigation. Behav Sci Law 12:113-126 (Pubitemid 24155512)
91. Lerner J, Tetlock P (1999) Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychol Bull 125:255-275
92. Lerner J, Tiedens L (2006) Portrait of the angry decision maker: how appraisal tendencies shape anger's influence on cognition. J Behav Decis Mak 19:115-137
93. Lerner J, Goldberg J, Tetlock P (1998) Sober second thought: the effects of accountability, anger, and authoritarianism on attributions of responsibility. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 24:563-574
94. Levenson L (2008) Courtroom demeanor: the theater of the courtroom. Minn Law Rev 92:573-633
95. Lieberman J, Arndt J (2000) Understanding the limits of limiting instructions. Psychol Public Policy Law 6:677-711
96. Loewenstein G, Lerner J (2003) The role of affect in decision making. In: Davidson R, Scherer K, Goldsmith H (eds) Handbook of affective sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 619-642
97. Mackie D, Devos T, Smith E (2000) Intergroup emotions: explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. J Pers Soc Psychol 79:602-616
98. Marder N (2002) Juries, drug laws, and sentencing. J Gend Race Justice 6:337-380
99. Maroney T (2006) Law and emotion: a proposed taxonomy of an emerging field. Law Hum Behav 30:119-142 (Pubitemid 44257237)
100. Mellers B, Schwartz A, Ritov I (1999) Emotion-based choice. J Exp Psychol: Gen 128:332-345
101. Michelson v. United States, 335 U.S. 469 (1948)
102. Monin B, Pizarro D, Beer J (2007) Deciding versus reacting: conceptions of moral judgment and the reason-affect debate. Rev Gen Psychol 11:99-111
103. Mueller C (2006/2007) Cross-examination earlier or later: when is it enough to satisfy. Crawford? Regent Univ Law Rev 19:319-365
104. Mueller C, Kirkpatrick L (2003) Evidence, 3rd edn. Aspen Law & Business, New York
105. Myers B, Lynn S, Arbuthnot J (2002) Victim impact testimony and juror judgments: the effects of harm information and witness demeanor. J Appl Soc Psychol 32:2393-2412 (Pubitemid 36256635)
106. National Center for State Courts (1998) Through the eyes of the juror: a manual for addressing juror stress. http://www.ncsconline.org/WC/Publications/ Res-Juries-JurorStressPub.pdf. Accessed 7 Apr 2008
107. Nisbett R, Wilson T (1977) Telling more than we can know: verbal reports on mental processes. Psychol Rev 84:231-259
108. Norris v. Risley, 918 F.2d 828 (9th Cir. 1990)
109. Nussbaum M (1994) The therapy of desire. Princeton University Press, Princeton
110. Nussbaum M (1999) Secret sewers of vice: disgust, bodies, and the law. In: Bandes S (ed) The passions of law. NYU Press, New York, pp 19-62
111. Nussbaum M (2001) Upheavals of thought. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
112. Öhman A (2000) Fear and anxiety: evolutionary, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. In: Lewis M, Haviland-Jones J (eds) Handbook of emotions, 2nd edn. Guilford Press, New York, pp 573-593
113. Old Chief v. United States, 519 U.S. 172 (1997)
114. Ortony A, Clore G, Collins A (1988) The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
115. Pennington N, Hastie R (1993) The story model for juror decision making. In: Hastie R (ed) Inside the juror. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 192-222
116. Petty R, Fabrigar L, Wegener D (2003) Emotional factors in attitudes and persuasion. In: Davidson R, Scherer K, Goldsmith H (eds) Handbook of affective sciences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 752-772
117. Pham M (2007) Emotion and rationality: a critical review and interpretation of empirical evidence. Rev Gen Psychol 11:155-178
118. Pickel K (1995) Inducing jurors to disregard inadmissible evidence: a legal explanation does not help. Law Hum Behav 19:407-424
119. Pillsbury S (1989) Emotional justice: moralizing the passions of criminal punishment. Cornell Law Rev 74:655-710
120. Pillsbury S (1999) Harlan, Holmes, and the passions of justice. In: Bandes S (ed) The passions of law. NYU Press, New York, pp 330-362
121. Pizarro D (2000) Nothing more than feelings? The role of emotions in moral judgment. J Theory Soc Behav 30:355-375
122. Quigley B, Tedeschi J (1996) Mediating effects of blame attributions on feelings of anger. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 22:1280-1288
123. Rose M, Nadler J, Clark J (2006) Appropriately upset? Emotion norms and perceptions of crime victims. Law Hum Behav 30:203-219 (Pubitemid 44257241)
124. Rozin P, Nemeroff C (2002) Sympathetic magical thinking: the contagion and similarity "heuristics". In: Gilovich T, Griffin D, Kahneman D (eds) Heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 201-216
125. Rozin P, Lowery L, Imada S, Haidt J (1999) The CAD triad hypothesis: a mapping between three moral emotions (contempt, anger, disgust) and three moral codes (community, autonomy, divinity). J Pers Soc Psychol 76:574-586
126. Salekin R, Ogloff J, McFarland C, Rogers R (1995) Influencing jurors' perceptions of guilt: expression of emotionality during testimony. Behav Sci Law 11:293-305
127. Sanders J (1998) Bendectin on trial. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI
128. Schuller R, Rzepa S (2002) Expert testimony pertaining to battered woman syndrome: its impact on jurors' decisions. Law Hum Behav 26:655-673 (Pubitemid 38420789)
129. Schwarz N (1990) Feelings as information: informational and motivational functions of affective states. In: Higgins ET, Sorrentino R (eds) Handbook of motivation and cognition, vol 2. Guilford Press, New York, pp 527-561
130. Schwarz N (2002) Feelings as information: judgments and processing strategies. In: Gilovich T, Griffin D, Kahneman D (eds) Heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 534-547
131. Schwarz N, Bless H (1992) Constructing reality and its alternatives: an inclusion/exclusion model of assimilation and contrast effects in social judgment. In: Martin L, Tesser A (eds) The construction of social judgments. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 217-245
132. Schwarz N, Clore G (1983) Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: informative and directive functions of affective states. J Pers Soc Psychol 45:513-523
133. Schwarz N, Clore G (1988) How do I feel about it? The informative function of affective states. In: Fiedler K, Forgas J (eds) Affect, cognition and social behavior. Hogrefe, Toronto, ON, pp 44-62
134. Securities and Exchange Commission v. Koenig, 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 26088 (N.D. Ill.) (denying defendant's post-trial motions for judgment as a matter of law and a new trial);
135. Securities and Exchange Commission v. Koenig, 2007 WL 4277439, at *4 (N.D. Ill. 3 Dec 2007)
136. Shaver P, Schwartz J, Kirson D, O'Connor C (2001) Emotion knowledge: further exploration of a prototype approach. In: Parrott WG (ed) Emotions in social psychology. Psychology Press, Philadelphia, pp 26-56
137. Sherwin R, Feigenson N, Spiesel C (2006) Law in the digital age: how visual communication technologies are transforming the practice, theory, and teaching of law. Boston Univ J Sci Technol Law 12:227-270
138. Shweder R (1991) Thinking through cultures. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
139. Shweder R (1994) "You're not sick, you're just in love": emotion as an interpretive system. In: Ekman P, Davidson R (eds) The nature of emotion. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 32-43
140. Simon D (2004) A third view of the black box: cognitive coherence in legal decision making. Univ Chic Law Rev 71:511-586 (Pubitemid 38750433)
141. Simon D, Snow C, Read S (2004) The redux of cognitive consistency theories: evidence judgments by constraint satisfaction. J Pers Soc Psychol 86:814-837 (Pubitemid 38707124)
142. Simon D, Stenstrom D, Read S (2008, September) On the objectivity of investigations: an experiment. Unpublished paper presented at Conference on Empirical Legal Studies, Ithaca, NY
143. Sinnott-Armstrong W (2008) Moral psychology (3 vols). MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
144. Smith A (1793/1984) The theory of moral sentiments (revised edition). Liberty Fund, Indianapolis
145. Smith V (1993) When prior knowledge and law collide: helping jurors use the law. Law Hum Behav 17:507-535
146. Smith C, Ellsworth P (1985) Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion. J Pers Soc Psychol 48:813-838
147. Snyder v. Louisiana, 128 S. Ct. 1203 (2008)
148. Solomon R (1990) A passion for justice. Addison-Wesley, New York
149. Solomon R (1994) Sympathy and vengeance: the role of the emotions in justice. In: van Goozen S, Van de Poll N, Sergeant J (eds) Emotions: essays in emotion theory. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 291-311
150. Spence G (1995) How to argue and win every time. St. Martin's Press, New York
151. Sunstein C (2005) Moral heuristics. Behav Brain Sci 28:531-542 (Pubitemid 41440118)
152. Sunstein C, Kahneman D, Schkade D (1998) Assessing punitive damages (with notes on cognition and valuation in law). Yale Law J 107:2071-2153
153. Sunstein C, Hastie R, Payne J, Schkade D, Viscusi K (2003) Punitive damages: how juries decide. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
154. Tanford JA (1993) The trial process, 2nd edn. Michie, Charlottesville, VA
155. Tetlock P (2002) Social functionalist frameworks for judgment and choice: intuitive politicians, theologians, and prosecutors. Psychol Rev 109:451-471
156. Tiedens L (2001) The effect of anger on the hostile inferences of aggressive and nonaggressive people: specific emotions, cognitive processing, and chronic accessibility. Motiv Emotion 25:233-251 (Pubitemid 33400681)
157. Tiedens L, Linton S (2001) Judgment under emotional certainty and uncertainty: the effects of specific emotions on information processing. J Pers Soc Psychol 81:973-988 (Pubitemid 33594523)
158. Weiner B (1995) Judgments of responsibility. Guilford Press, New York
159. Weiner B, Graham S, Reyna C (1997) An attributional examination of retributive versus utilitarian philosophies of punishment. Soc Justice Res 10:431-452 (Pubitemid 128064570)
160. Wiener RL, Bornstein BH, Voss A (2006) Emotion and the law: a framework for inquiry. Law Hum Behav 30:231-248 (Pubitemid 44257243)
161. Wilson T (2002) Strangers to ourselves. Belknap/Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
162. Wilson T, Brekke N (1994) Mental contamination and mental correction: unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations. Psychol Bull 116:117-142 (Pubitemid 24976765)
163. Wilson T, Gilbert D (2003) Affective forecasting. In: Zanna M (ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 35. Academic, Amsterdam, pp 346-411
164. Wilson T, Centerbar D, Brekke N (2002) Mental contamination and the debiasing problem. In: Gilovich T, Griffin D, Kahneman D (eds) Heuristics and biases: the psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 185-200
165. Wistrich A, Guthrie C, Rachlinksi J (2005) Can judges ignore inadmissible information? The difficulty of deliberately disregarding. Univ Pa Law Rev 153:1251-1345 (Pubitemid 40746974)
166. Wright D, Ankerman W (1993) Connecticut jury instructions (civil), 4th edn. The Atlantic Book Company, West Hartford, CT
167. Zajonc R (2000) Feeling and thinking: closing the debate over the independence of affect. In: Forgas J (ed) Feeling and thinking. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, pp 31-58
168. Zillmann D (1983) Transfer of excitation in emotional behavior. In: Cacioppo J, Petty R (eds) Social psychophysiology. Guilford Press, New York, pp 215-240