Diabetes, hyperglycaemia, and acute ischaemic stroke

The Lancet Neurology

Volumn 11, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 261-271

  Luitse, Merel J A ^a   Biessels, Geert Jan ^a   Rutten, Guy E H M ^a   Kappelle, L Jaap ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER UTRECHT   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; APIXABAN; CLOPIDOGREL; DABIGATRAN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; RIVAROXABAN;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAROTID ENDARTERECTOMY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; FUNCTIONAL STATUS; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HOSPITAL ADMISSION; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN TREATMENT; LIFESTYLE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPERFUSION INJURY; REVIEW; STROKE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VASCULAR DISEASE;

BRAIN ISCHEMIA; COMORBIDITY; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMANS; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; RISK; RISK FACTORS; STROKE;

EID: 84856830094     PISSN: 14744422     EISSN: 14744465     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70005-4     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Danaei G, Finucane MM, Lu Y, et al. National, regional, and global trends in fasting plasma glucose and diabetes prevalence since 1980: systematic analysis of health examination surveys and epidemiological studies with 370 country-years and 2·7 million participants. Lancet 2011, 378:31-40. on behalf of the Global Burden of Metabolic Risk Factors of Chronic Diseases Collaborating Group (Blood Glucose).
2. Eisenbarth GS Update in type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007, 92:2403-2407.
3. Daneman D Type 1 diabetes. Lancet 2006, 367:847-858.
4. Ostman J, Lonnberg G, Arnqvist HJ, et al. Gender differences and temporal variation in the incidence of type 1 diabetes: results of 8012 cases in the nationwide Diabetes Incidence Study in Sweden 1983-2002. J Intern Med 2008, 263:386-394.
5. Stumvoll M, Goldstein BJ, van Haeften TW Type 2 diabetes: principles of pathogenesis and therapy. Lancet 2005, 365:1333-1346.
6. Green A, Christian Hirsch N, Pramming SK The changing world demography of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2003, 19:3-7.
7. Gale EA, Gillespie KM Diabetes and gender. Diabetologia 2001, 44:3-15.
8. Mainous AG, Baker R, Koopman RJ, et al. Impact of the population at risk of diabetes on projections of diabetes burden in the United States: an epidemic on the way. Diabetologia 2007, 50:934-940.
9. Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ The metabolic syndrome. Lancet 2005, 365:1415-1428.
10. Choi BC, Shi F Risk factors for diabetes mellitus by age and sex: results of the National Population Health Survey. Diabetologia 2001, 44:1221-1231.
11. Gerstein HC, Santaguida P, Raina P, et al. Annual incidence and relative risk of diabetes in people with various categories of dysglycemia: a systematic overview and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007, 78:305-312.
12. Unwin N, Shaw J, Zimmet P, Alberti KG Impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glycaemia: the current status on definition and intervention. Diabet Med 2002, 19:708-723.
13. Cheung N, Mitchell P, Wong TY Diabetic retinopathy. Lancet 2010, 376:124-136.
14. Long-term effect of diabetes and its treatment on cognitive function. N Engl J Med 2007, 356:1842-1852. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Study Research Group.
15. Orchard TJ, Stevens LK, Forrest KY, Fuller JH Cardiovascular disease in insulin dependent diabetes mellitus: similar rates but different risk factors in the US compared with Europe. Int J Epidemiol 1998, 27:976-983.
16. Donnelly R, Emslie-Smith AM, Gardner ID, Morris AD ABC of arterial and venous disease: vascular complications of diabetes. BMJ 2000, 320:1062-1066.
17. DeFronzo RA, Abdul-Ghani M Assessment and treatment of cardiovascular risk in prediabetes: impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose. Am J Cardiol 2011, 108:3B-24B.
18. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 2006, 367:1747-1757.
19. Strong K, Mathers C, Bonita R Preventing stroke: saving lives around the world. Lancet Neurol 2007, 6:182-187.
20. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet 2010, 375:2215-2222. The Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration.
21. Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, Pathak P, Gerstein HC Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke 2001, 32:2426-2432.
22. Biessels GJ, Deary IJ, Ryan CM Cognition and diabetes: a lifespan perspective. Lancet Neurol 2008, 7:184-190.
23. Kruyt ND, Biessels GJ, DeVries JH, et al. Hyperglycemia in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a potentially modifiable risk factor for poor outcome. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2010, 30:1577-1587.
24. Fuller JH, Stevens LK, Wang SL Risk factors for cardiovascular mortality and morbidity: the WHO Mutinational Study of Vascular Disease in Diabetes. Diabetologia 2001, 44(suppl 2):S54-S64.
25. Janghorbani M, Hu FB, Willett WC, et al. Prospective study of type 1 and type 2 diabetes and risk of stroke subtypes: the Nurses' Health Study. Diabetes Care 2007, 30:1730-1735.
26. Kissela BM, Khoury J, Kleindorfer D, et al. Epidemiology of ischemic stroke in patients with diabetes: the greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky Stroke Study. Diabetes Care 2005, 28:355-359.
27. Jackson C, Sudlow C Are lacunar strokes really different? A systematic review of differences in risk factor profiles between lacunar and nonlacunar infarcts. Stroke 2005, 36:891-901.
28. Cui R, Iso H, Yamagishi K, et al. Diabetes mellitus and risk of stroke and its subtypes among Japanese: the Japan public health center study. Stroke 2011, 42:2611-2614.
29. Ohira T, Shahar E, Chambless LE, Rosamond WD, Mosley TH, Folsom AR Risk factors for ischemic stroke subtypes: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Stroke 2006, 37:2493-2498.
30. Huxley RR, Filion KB, Konety S, Alonso A Meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies of type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol 2011, 108:56-62.
31. Dekker JM, Girman C, Rhodes T, et al. Metabolic syndrome and 10-year cardiovascular disease risk in the Hoorn Study. Circulation 2005, 112:666-673.
32. Rundek T, Gardener H, Xu Q, et al. Insulin resistance and risk of ischemic stroke among nondiabetic individuals from the northern Manhattan study. Arch Neurol 2010, 67:1195-1200.
33. Thacker EL, Psaty BM, McKnight B, et al. Fasting and post-glucose load measures of insulin resistance and risk of ischemic stroke in older adults. Stroke 2011, 42:3347-3351.
34. Selvin E, Steffes MW, Zhu H, et al. Glycated hemoglobin, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk in nondiabetic adults. N Engl J Med 2010, 362:800-811.
35. Megherbi SE, Milan C, Minier D, et al. Association between diabetes and stroke subtype on survival and functional outcome 3 months after stroke: data from the European BIOMED Stroke Project. Stroke 2003, 34:688-694.
36. Kamalesh M, Shen J, Eckert GJ Long term postischemic stroke mortality in diabetes: a veteran cohort analysis. Stroke 2008, 39:2727-2731.
37. Putaala J, Liebkind R, Gordin D, et al. Diabetes mellitus and ischemic stroke in the young: clinical features and long-term prognosis. Neurology 2011, 76:1831-1837.
38. Hillen T, Coshall C, Tilling K, et al. Cause of stroke recurrence is multifactorial: patterns, risk factors, and outcomes of stroke recurrence in the South London Stroke Register. Stroke 2003, 34:1457-1463.
39. Pendlebury ST, Rothwell PM Prevalence, incidence, and factors associated with pre-stroke and post-stroke dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol 2009, 8:1006-1018.
40. Standards of medical care in diabetes: 2011. Diabetes Care 2011, 34(suppl 1):S11-S61. American Diabetes Association.
41. Goldstein LB, Bushnell CD, Adams RJ, et al. Guidelines for the primary prevention of stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2011, 42:517-584.
42. Sone H, Tanaka S, Iimuro S, et al. Long-term lifestyle intervention lowers the incidence of stroke in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes: a nationwide multicentre randomised controlled trial (the Japan Diabetes Complications Study). Diabetologia 2010, 53:419-428.
43. Long-term effects of a lifestyle intervention on weight and cardiovascular risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus: four-year results of the Look AHEAD trial. Arch Intern Med 2010, 170:1566-1575. The Look AHEAD Research Group.
44. Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, et al. Benefits of modest weight loss in improving cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011, 34:1481-1486.
45. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 2002, 324:71-86. Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration.
46. Lip GY, Nieuwlaat R, Pisters R, Lane DA, Crijns HJ Refining clinical risk stratification for predicting stroke and thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation using a novel risk factor-based approach: the Euro Heart Survey on Atrial Fibrillation. Chest 2010, 137:263-272.
47. Rerkasem K, Rothwell PM Carotid endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011, 4. CD001081.
48. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008, 358:2560-2572. The ADVANCE Collaborative Group.
49. Duckworth W, Abraira C, Moritz T, et al. Glucose control and vascular complications in veterans with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009, 360:129-139.
50. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008, 358:2545-2559. The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group.
51. Long-term effects of intensive glucose lowering on cardiovascular outcomes. N Engl J Med 2011, 364:818-828. The ACCORD Study Group.
52. Boussageon R, Bejan-Angoulvant T, Saadatian-Elahi M, et al. Effect of intensive glucose lowering treatment on all cause mortality, cardiovascular death, and microvascular events in type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2011, 343:d4169.
53. Hemmingsen B, Lund SS, Gluud C, et al. Targeting intensive glycaemic control versus targeting conventional glycaemic control for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011, 6. CD008143.
54. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2005, 353:2643-2653. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (DCCT/EDIC) Study Research Group.
55. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ 1998, 317:703-713. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group.
56. Lindholm LH, Ibsen H, Dahlöf B, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes in the Losartan Intervention For Endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002, 359:1004-1010. for the LIFE study group.
57. Patel A Effects of a fixed combination of perindopril and indapamide on macrovascular and microvascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the ADVANCE trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2007, 370:829-840. ADVANCE Collaborative Group.
58. Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington RP, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010, 362:1575-1585.
59. Bangalore S, Kumar S, Lobach I, Messerli FH Blood pressure targets in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus/impaired fasting glucose: observations from traditional and bayesian random-effects meta-analyses of randomized trials. Circulation 2011, 123:2799-2810.
60. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin in 5963 people with diabetes: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2003, 361:2005-2016. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group.
61. Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004, 364:685-696. on behalf of the CARDS investigators.
62. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005, 366:1849-1861. The FIELD study investigators.
63. Ginsberg HN, Elam MB, Lovato LC, et al. Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2010, 362:1563-1574.
64. Gaede P, Lund-Andersen H, Parving H-H, Pedersen O Effect of a multifactorial intervention on mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008, 358:580-591.
65. Anselmino M, Malmberg K, Öhrvik J, Rydén L Evidence-based medication and revascularization: powerful tools in the management of patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease: a report from the Euro Heart Survey on diabetes and the heart. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008, 15:216-223. on behalf of the Euro Heart Survey Investigators.
66. Griffin SJ, Borch-Johnsen K, Davies MJ, et al. Effect of early intensive multifactorial therapy on 5-year cardiovascular outcomes in individuals with type 2 diabetes detected by screening (ADDITION-Europe): a cluster-randomised trial. Lancet 2011, 378:156-167.
67. Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, Neil HA, Matthews DR Long-term follow-up after tight control of blood pressure in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2008, 359:1565-1576.
68. Gary TL, Genkinger JM, Guallar E, Peyrot M, Brancati FL Meta-analysis of randomized educational and behavioral interventions in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Educ 2003, 29:488-501.
69. Ogawa H, Nakayama M, Morimoto T, et al. Low-dose aspirin for primary prevention of atherosclerotic events in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008, 300:2134-2141.
70. De Berardis G, Sacco M, Strippoli GF, et al. Aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular events in people with diabetes: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2009, 339:b4531.
71. Bhatt DL, Marso SP, Hirsch AT, Ringleb PA, Hacke W, Topol EJ Amplified benefit of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Cardiol 2002, 90:625-628.
72. Camm AJ, Kirchhof P, Lip GYH, et al. Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation: the Task Force for the Management of Atrial Fibrillation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Europace 2010, 12:1360-1420.
73. Rothwell PM, Algra A, Amarenco P Medical treatment in acute and long-term secondary prevention after transient ischaemic attack and ischaemic stroke. Lancet 2011, 377:1681-1692.
74. Cunningham EJ, Bond R, Mehta Z, et al. Long-term durability of carotid endarterectomy for symptomatic stenosis and risk factors for late postoperative stroke. Stroke 2002, 33:2658-2663.
75. Debing E, Aerden D, Van den Brande P Diabetes mellitus is a predictor for early adverse outcome after carotid endarterectomy. Vasc Endovascular Surg 2011, 45:28-32.
76. Uyttenboogaart M, Koch MW, Stewart RE, Vroomen PC, Luijckx GJ, De Keyser J Moderate hyperglycaemia is associated with favourable outcome in acute lacunar stroke. Brain 2007, 130:1626-1630.
77. Dungan KM, Braithwaite SS, Preiser J-C Stress hyperglycaemia. Lancet 2009, 373:1798-1807.
78. Kruyt ND, Biessels GJ, Devries JH, Roos YB Hyperglycemia in acute ischemic stroke: pathophysiology and clinical management. Nat Rev Neurol 2010, 6:145-155.
79. Ntaios G, Abatzi C, Alexandrou M, et al. Persistent hyperglycemia at 24-48 h in acute hyperglycemic stroke patients is not associated with a worse functional outcome. Cerebrovasc Dis 2011, 32:561-566.
80. Kruyt ND, Nys GM, van der Worp HB, van Zandvoort MJ, Kappelle LJ, Biessels GJ Hyperglycemia and cognitive outcome after ischemic stroke. J Neurol Sci 2008, 270:141-147.
81. Bruno A, Biller J, Adams HP, et al. Acute blood glucose level and outcome from ischemic stroke: Trial of ORG 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) Investigators. Neurology 1999, 52:280-284.
82. MacDougall NJ, Muir KW Hyperglycaemia and infarct size in animal models of middle cerebral artery occlusion: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2011, 31:807-818.
83. Gentile NT, Vaidyula VR, Kanamalla U, DeAngelis M, Gaughan J, Rao AK Factor VIIa and tissue factor procoagulant activity in diabetes mellitus after acute ischemic stroke: impact of hyperglycemia. Thromb Haemost 2007, 98:1007-1013.
84. Vaidyula VR, Rao AK, Mozzoli M, Homko C, Cheung P, Boden G Effects of hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia on circulating tissue factor procoagulant activity and platelet CD40 ligand. Diabetes 2006, 55:202-208.
85. Lemkes BA, Hermanides J, Devries JH, Holleman F, Meijers JC, Hoekstra JB Hyperglycemia: a prothrombotic factor?. J Thromb Haemost 2010, 8:1663-1669.
86. Meigs JB, Mittleman MA, Nathan DM, et al. Hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, and impaired hemostasis: the Framingham Offspring Study. JAMA 2000, 283:221-228.
87. Pandolfi A, Giaccari A, Cilli C, et al. Acute hyperglycemia and acute hyperinsulinemia decrease plasma fibrinolytic activity and increase plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in the rat. Acta Diabetol 2001, 38:71-76.
88. Ribo M, Molina C, Montaner J, et al. Acute hyperglycemia state is associated with lower tPA-induced recanalization rates in stroke patients. Stroke 2005, 36:1705-1709.
89. Kawai N, Keep RF, Betz AL, Nagao S Hyperglycemia induces progressive changes in the cerebral microvasculature and blood-brain barrier transport during focal cerebral ischemia. Acta Neurochir Suppl 1998, 71:219-221.
90. Quast MJ, Wei J, Huang NC, et al. Perfusion deficit parallels exacerbation of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury in hyperglycemic rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1997, 17:553-559.
91. Fleming I, Busse R Molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003, 284:R1-12.
92. Melikian N, Seddon MD, Casadei B, Chowienczyk PJ, Shah AM Neuronal nitric oxide synthase and human vascular regulation. Trends Cardiovasc Med 2009, 19:256-262.
93. Kamada H, Yu F, Nito C, Chan PH Influence of hyperglycemia on oxidative stress and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activation after focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in rats: relation to blood-brain barrier dysfunction. Stroke 2007, 38:1044-1049.
94. Bemeur C, Ste-Marie L, Montgomery J Increased oxidative stress during hyperglycemic cerebral ischemia. Neurochem Int 2007, 50:890-904.
95. Esposito K, Nappo F, Marfella R, et al. Inflammatory cytokine concentrations are acutely increased by hyperglycemia in humans: role of oxidative stress. Circulation 2002, 106:2067-2072.
96. Ahmed N, Davalos A, Eriksson N, et al. Association of admission blood glucose and outcome in patients treated with intravenous thrombolysis: results from the Safe Implementation of Treatments in Stroke International Stroke Thrombolysis Register (SITS-ISTR). Arch Neurol 2010, 67:1123-1130.
97. Putaala J, Sairanen T, Meretoja A, et al. Post-thrombolytic hyperglycemia and 3-month outcome in acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2011, 31:83-92.
98. Parsons MW, Barber PA, Desmond PM, et al. Acute hyperglycemia adversely affects stroke outcome: a magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy study. Ann Neurol 2002, 52:20-28.
99. Els T, Klisch J, Orszagh M, et al. Hyperglycemia in patients with focal cerebral ischemia after intravenous thrombolysis: influence on clinical outcome and infarct size. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002, 13:89-94.
100. Mishra NK, Ahmed N, Davalos A, et al. Thrombolysis outcomes in acute ischemic stroke patients with prior stroke and diabetes mellitus. Neurology 2011, 77:1866-1872.
101. English P, Williams G Hyperglycaemic crises and lactic acidosis in diabetes mellitus. Postgrad Med J 2004, 80:253-261.
102. Lavin PJ Hyperglycemic hemianopia: a reversible complication of non-ketotic hyperglycemia. Neurology 2005, 65:616-619.
103. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001, 345:1359-1367.
104. van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Milants I, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in mixed medical/surgical intensive care units: benefit versus harm. Diabetes 2006, 55:3151-3159.
105. Furnary AP, Gao G, Grunkemeier GL, et al. Continuous insulin infusion reduces mortality in patients with diabetes undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003, 125:1007-1021.
106. Kansagara D, Fu R, Freeman M, Wolf F, Helfand M Intensive insulin therapy in hospitalized patients: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2011, 154:268-282.
107. Bruno A, Kent TA, Coull BM, et al. Treatment of hyperglycemia in ischemic stroke (THIS): a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2008, 39:384-389.
108. Gray CS, Hildreth AJ, Sandercock PA, et al. Glucose-potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol 2007, 6:397-406. for the GIST Trialists Collaboration.
109. Johnston KC, Hall CE, Kissela BM, Bleck TP, Conaway MR Glucose Regulation in Acute Stroke Patients (GRASP) trial: a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2009, 40:3804-3809.
110. Kreisel SH, Berschin UM, Hammes HP, et al. Pragmatic management of hyperglycaemia in acute ischaemic stroke: safety and feasibility of intensive intravenous insulin treatment. Cerebrovasc Dis 2009, 27:167-175.
111. Kruyt ND, Biessels GJ, Vriesendorp TM, et al. Subjecting acute ischemic stroke patients to continuous tube feeding and an intensive computerized protocol establishes tight glycemic control. Neurocrit Care 2010, 12:62-68.
112. Staszewski J, Brodacki B, Kotowicz J, Stepien A Intravenous insulin therapy in the maintenance of strict glycemic control in nondiabetic acute stroke patients with mild hyperglycemia. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2011, 20:150-154.
113. Vinychuk SM, Melnyk VS, Margitich VM Hyperglycemia after acute ischemic stroke: prediction, significance and immediate control with insulin-potassium-saline-magnesium infusions. Heart Drug 2005, 5:197-204.
114. Vriesendorp TM, Roos YB, Kruyt ND, et al. Efficacy and safety of two 5 day insulin dosing regimens to achieve strict glycaemic control in patients with acute ischaemic stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009, 80:1040-1043.
115. Walters MR, Weir CJ, Lees KR A randomised, controlled pilot study to investigate the potential benefit of intervention with insulin in hyperglycaemic acute ischaemic stroke patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006, 22:116-122.
116. Vogelzang M, Loef BG, Regtien JG, et al. Computer-assisted glucose control in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2008, 34:1421-1427.
117. Bellolio MF, Gilmore RM, Stead LG Insulin for glycaemic control in acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011, 9. CD005346.
118. Adams HP, del Zoppo G, Alberts MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups. Circulation 2007, 115:e478-e534.
119. Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008, 25:457-507. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee, ESO Writing CommitteeESO Writing Committee.