Antioxidant therapy in hemodialysis patients: A systematic review

Kidney International

Volumn 81, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 233-246

  Coombes, Jeff S ^a   Fassett, Robert G ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b ROYAL BRISBANE AND WOMEN'S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

ESRD; oxidative stress; vitamin C

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ALPHA TOCOTRIENOL; ANTIOXIDANT; ASCORBIC ACID; ATORVASTATIN; BETA CAROTENE; BETA TOCOPHEROL; BETA TOCOTRIENOL; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CYANOCOBALAMIN; DELTA TOCOPHEROL; DELTA TOCOTRIENOL; DOCOSAHEXAENOIC ACID; ERYTHROPOIETIN; FERRIC HYDROXIDE SUCROSE; FOLIC ACID; GAMMA TOCOTRIENOL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IRON; PLACEBO; PYRIDOXINE; RESVERATROL; RETINOL; SELENIUM; THIOCTIC ACID; UBIQUINONE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; ZINC;

ANTIOXIDANT THERAPY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG THERAPY; HEMODIALYSIS PATIENT; HUMAN; INTERVENTION STUDY; MEDLINE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OPEN STUDY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

EID: 84856723098     PISSN: 00852538     EISSN: 15231755     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/ki.2011.341     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. McDonald S, Excell L, Livingston B. ANZDATA Registry 2010 Report 2010. http://www.anzdata.org.au/anzdata/AnzdataReport/33rdReport/Ch03.pdf, Accessed 6 May 2011.
2. Raine AE, Margreiter R, Brunner FP et al. Report on management of renal failure in Europe, XXII, 1991. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1992; 7(Suppl 2): 7-35. (Pubitemid 23049872)
3. Fellstrom BC, Jardine AG, Schmieder RE et al. Rosuvastatin and cardiovascular events in patients undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 1395-1407.
4. Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W et al. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 238-248. (Pubitemid 41058323)
5. Eknoyan G, Beck GJ, Cheung AK et al. Effect of dialysis dose and membrane flux in maintenance hemodialysis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347: 2010-2019. (Pubitemid 35461657)
6. Cooper BA, Branley P, Bulfone L et al. A randomized, controlled trial of early versus late initiation of dialysis. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 609-619.
7. Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T et al. Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356: 1213-1218.
8. Tepel M, Van de giet M, Statz M et al. The antioxidant acetylcysteine reduces cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal failure: a controlled trial. Circulation 2003; 107: 992-995. (Pubitemid 36258722)
9. Ikizler TA, Morrow JD, Roberts LJ et al. Plasma F2-isoprostane levels are elevated in chronic hemodialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 2002; 58: 190-197. (Pubitemid 34994045)
10. Halliwell B. Reactive oxygen species in living systems: source, biochemistry, and role in human disease. Am J Med 1991; 91: 14S-22S.
11. Llorens S, Nava E. Cardiovascular diseases and the nitric oxide pathway. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2003; 1: 335-346.
12. Stocker R, Keaney Jr JF. Role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol Rev 2004; 84: 1381-1478. (Pubitemid 39302636)
13. Pergola PE, Krauth M, Huff JW et al. Effect of bardoxolone methyl on kidney function in patients with T2D and Stage 3b-4 CKD. Am J Nephrol 2011; 33: 469-476.
14. Gey KF, Moser UK, Jordan P et al. Increased risk of cardiovascular disease at suboptimal plasma concentrations of essential antioxidants: an epidemiological update with special attention to carotene and vitamin C. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 787S-797S. (Pubitemid 23141207)
15. Colditz GA, Willett WC, Hunter DJ et al. Family history, age, and risk of breast cancer. Prospective data from the Nurses' Health Study. JAMA 1993; 270: 338-343. (Pubitemid 23202681)
16. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A et al. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1450-1456. (Pubitemid 23143847)
17. Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM et al. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS). Lancet 1996; 347: 781-786. (Pubitemid 26091640)
18. Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators [see comments]. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 154-160.
19. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 23-33.
20. Himmelfarb J, Stenvinkel P, Ikizler TA et al. The elephant in uremia: oxidant stress as a unifying concept of cardiovascular disease in uremia. Kidney Int 2002; 62: 1524-1538. (Pubitemid 35286260)
21. Handelman GJ, Walter MF, Adhikarla R et al. Elevated plasma F2-isoprostanes in patients on long-term hemodialysis. Kidney Int 2001; 59: 1960-1966. (Pubitemid 32336813)
22. Chao JC, Yuan MD, Chen PY et al. Vitamin C and E supplements improve the impaired antioxidant status and decrease plasma lipid peroxides in hemodialysis patients small star, filled. J Nutr Biochem 2002; 13: 653-663. (Pubitemid 35341711)
23. Bayes B, Pastor MC, Bonal J et al. Homocysteine and lipid peroxidation in haemodialysis: role of folinic acid and vitamin E. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 2172-2175. (Pubitemid 33062139)
24. Ohkawa S, Yoneyama T, Shimoi K et al. Pro-oxidative effect of alphatocopherol in the oxidation of LDL isolated from co-antioxidantdepleted non-diabetic hemodialysis patients. Atherosclerosis 2004; 176: 411-418. (Pubitemid 39369534)
25. Himmelfarb J, McMonagle E, McMenamin E. Plasma protein thiol oxidation and carbonyl formation in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 2000; 58: 2571-2578.
26. Odetti P, Garibaldi S, Gurreri G et al. Protein oxidation in hemodialysis and kidney transplantation. Metabolism 1996; 45: 1319-1322. (Pubitemid 26383069)
27. Himmelfarb J, McMenamin ME, Loseto G et al. Myeloperoxidasecatalyzed 3-chlorotyrosine formation in dialysis patients. Free Radic Biol Med 2001; 31: 1163-1169. (Pubitemid 33052491)
28. Witko-Sarsat V, Friedlander M, Capeillere-Blandin C et al. Advanced oxidation protein products as a novel marker of oxidative stress in uremia. Kidney Int 1996; 49: 1304-1313. (Pubitemid 26166404)
29. Ha TK, Sattar N, Talwar D et al. Abnormal antioxidant vitamin and carotenoid status in chronic renal failure. QJM 1996; 89: 765-769. (Pubitemid 26345116)
30. Cheung AK. Biocompatibility of hemodialysis membranes. J Am Soc Nephrol 1990; 1: 150-161.
31. Hu ML, Louie S, Cross CE et al. Antioxidant protection against hypochlorous acid in human plasma. J Lab Clin Med 1993; 121: 257-262. (Pubitemid 23073132)
32. Oberg BP, McMenamin E, Lucas FL et al. Increased prevalence of oxidant stress and inflammation in patients with moderate to severe chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int 2004; 65: 1009-1016. (Pubitemid 38251077)
33. Morena M, Patrier L, Jaussent I et al. Reduced glomerular filtration rate, inflammation and HDL cholesterol as main determinants of superoxide production in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease patients. Free Rad Res 2011; 45: 735-745.
34. Steinberg D. Antioxidants in the prevention of human atherosclerosis. Summary of the proceedings of a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Workshop: September 5-6, 1991, Bethesda, Maryland. Circulation 1992; 85: 2337-2344.
35. Hodkova M, Dusilova-Sulkova S, Kalousova M et al. Influence of oral vitamin E therapy on micro-inflammation and cardiovascular disease markers in chronic hemodialysis patients. Ren Fail 2006; 28: 395-399. (Pubitemid 44049783)
36. Giray B, Kan E, Bali M et al. The effect of vitamin E supplementation on antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation levels in hemodialysis patients. Clin Chim Acta 2003; 338: 91-98. (Pubitemid 37456695)
37. Strobel NA, Fassett RG, Marsh SA et al. Oxidative stress biomarkers as predictors of cardiovascular disease. Int J Cardiol 2011; 147: 191-201.
38. Giardini O, Taccone-Gallucci M, Lubrano R et al. Effects of alphatocopherol administration on red blood cell membrane lipid peroxidation in hemodialysis patients. Clin Neph 1984; 21: 174-177. (Pubitemid 14161357)
39. Lubrano R, Taccone-Gallucci M, Mazzarella V et al. Relationship between red blood cell lipid peroxidation, plasma hemoglobin, and red blood cell osmotic resistance before and after vitamin E supplementation in hemodialysis patients. Artif Organs 1986; 10: 245-250.
40. Taccone-Gallucci M, Giardini O, Ausiello C et al. Vitamin E supplementation in hemodialysis patients: effects on peripheral blood mononuclear cells lipid peroxidation and immune response. Clin Nephrol 1986; 25: 81-86. (Pubitemid 16156333)
41. Taccone-Gallucci M, Lubrano R, Del Principe D et al. Platelet lipid peroxidation in haemodialysis patients: effects of vitamin E supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1989; 4: 975-978. (Pubitemid 20050403)
42. Yukawa S, Sonobe M, Tone Y et al. Prevention of aortic calcification in patients on hemodialysis by long-term administration of vitamin E. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 1992 Spec No 187-190.
43. Lubrano R, Taccone-Gallucci M, Piazza A et al. Vitamin E supplementation and oxidative status of peripheral blood mononuclear cells and lymphocyte subsets in hemodialysis patients. Nutrition 1992; 8: 94-97.
44. Panzetta O, Cominacini L, Garbin U et al. Increased susceptibility of LDL to in vitro oxidation in patients on maintenance hemodialysis: effects of fish oil and vitamin E administration. Clin Nephrol 1995; 44: 303-309.
45. Sanaka T, Takahashi C, Sanaka M et al. Accumulation of phosphatidylcholine-hydrogen peroxide in dialysis patients with diabetic nephropathy. Clin Nephrol 1995; 44: 533-537.
46. Yukawa S, Hibino A, Maeda T et al. Effect of alpha-tocopherol on in vitro and in vivo metabolism of low-density lipoproteins in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1995; 10: 1-3.
47. Cristol JP, Bosc JY, Badiou S et al. Erythropoietin and oxidative stress in haemodialysis: beneficial effects of vitamin E supplementation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1997; 12: 2312-2317. (Pubitemid 27474613)
48. Roob JM, Khoschsorur G, Tiran A et al. Vitamin E attenuates oxidative stress induced by intravenous iron in patients on hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000; 11: 539-549. (Pubitemid 30115084)
49. Nemeth I, Turi S, Bereczki C. Vitamin E alleviates the oxidative stress of erythropoietin in uremic children on hemodialysis. Pediatr Nephrol 2000; 14: 13-17. (Pubitemid 30085335)
50. Islam KN, O'Byrne D, Devaraj S et al. Alpha-tocopherol supplementation decreases the oxidative susceptibility of LDL in renal failure patients on dialysis therapy. Atherosclerosis 2000; 150: 217-224.
51. O'Byrne D, Devaraj S, Islam KN et al. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-induced monocyte-endothelial cell adhesion, soluble cell adhesion molecules, and autoantibodies to oxidized-LDL in chronic renal failure patients on dialysis therapy. Metabolism 2001; 50: 207-215. (Pubitemid 32170835)
52. Bayes B, Pastor MC, Bonal J et al. Homocysteine and lipid peroxidation in haemodialysis: role of folinic acid and vitamin E. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 2172-2175. (Pubitemid 33062139)
53. Galli F, Varga Z, Balla J et al. Vitamin E, lipid profile, and peroxidation in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int Suppl 2001; 78: S148-S154. (Pubitemid 32144088)
54. Giray B, Kan E, Bali M et al. The effect of vitamin E supplementation on antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation levels in hemodialysis patients. Clinica Chimica Acta 2003; 338: 91-98. (Pubitemid 37456695)
55. Badiou S, Cristol JP, Morena M et al. Vitamin E supplementation increases LDL resistance to ex vivo oxidation in hemodialysis patients. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2003; 73: 290-296. (Pubitemid 36957887)
56. Smith KS, Lee CL, Ridlington JW et al. Vitamin E supplementation increases circulating vitamin E metabolites tenfold in end-stage renal disease patients. Lipids 2003; 38: 813-819. (Pubitemid 37193741)
57. Hodkova M, Dusilova-Sulkova S, Skalicka A et al. Influence of parenteral iron therapy and oral vitamin E supplementation on neutrophil respiratory burst in chronic hemodialysis patients. Ren Fail 2005; 27: 135-141. (Pubitemid 40393123)
58. Diepeveen SH, Verhoeven GW, Van Der Palen J et al. Effects of atorvastatin and vitamin E on lipoproteins and oxidative stress in dialysis patients: a randomised-controlled trial. J Intern Med 2005; 257: 438-445. (Pubitemid 40604548)
59. Uzum A, Toprak O, Gumustas MK et al. Effect of vitamin E therapy on oxidative stress and erythrocyte osmotic fragility in patients on peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis. J Nephrol 2006; 19: 739-745. (Pubitemid 46415978)
60. Lu L, Erhard P, Salomon RG et al. Serum vitamin E and oxidative protein modification in hemodialysis: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2007; 50: 305-313. (Pubitemid 47095072)
61. Mafra D, Santos FR, Lobo JC et al. Alpha-tocopherol supplementation decreases electronegative low-density lipoprotein concentration [LDL(-)] in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009; 24: 1587-1592.
62. Jialal I, Devaraj S. Antioxidants and atherosclerosis: don't throw out the baby with the bath water. Circulation 2003; 107: 926-928. (Pubitemid 36258710)
63. Candan F, Gultekin F, Candan F. Effect of vitamin C and zinc on osmotic fragility and lipid peroxidation in zinc-deficient haemodialysis patients. Cell Biochem Funct 2002; 20: 95-98.
64. Chen WT, Lin YF, Yu FC et al. Effect of ascorbic acid administration in hemodialysis patients on in vitro oxidative stress parameters: influence of serum ferritin levels. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 42: 158-166.
65. Cross J, Donald A, Nuttall S et al. Vitamin C improves resistance but not conduit artery endothelial function in patients with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 2003; 63: 1433-1442. (Pubitemid 36350008)
66. Tarng DC, Liu TY, Huang TP. Protective effect of vitamin C on 8-hydroxy-20-deoxyguanosine level in peripheral blood lymphocytes of chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2004; 66: 820-831.
67. Eiselt J, Racek J, Opatrny Jr K et al. The effect of intravenous iron on oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients at various levels of vitamin C. Blood Purif 2006; 24: 531-537. (Pubitemid 46039481)
68. Chan D, Irish A, Croft KD et al. Effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on plasma isoprostanes in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2006; 21: 234-235. (Pubitemid 43057143)
69. Yang CC, Hsu SP, Wu MS et al. Effects of vitamin C infusion and vitamin E-coated membrane on hemodialysis-induced oxidative stress. Kidney Int 2006; 69: 706-714.
70. Ramos R, Martinez-Castelao A. Lipoperoxidation and hemodialysis. Metabolism 2008; 57: 1369-1374.
71. Abdollahzad H, Eghtesadi S, Nourmohammadi I et al. Effect of vitamin C supplementation on oxidative stress and lipid profiles in hemodialysis patients. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2009; 79: 281-287.
72. Washio K, Inagaki M, Tsuji M et al. Oral vitamin C supplementation in hemodialysis patients and its effect on the plasma level of oxidized ascorbic acid and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, an oxidative stress marker. Nephron Clin Pract 2008; 109: c49-c54.
73. Fumeron C, Nguyen-Khoa T, Saltiel C et al. Effects of oral vitamin C supplementation on oxidative stress and inflammation status in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2005; 20: 1874-1879. (Pubitemid 41222602)
74. Trimarchi H, Mongitore MR, Baglioni P et al. N-acetylcysteine reduces malondialdehyde levels in chronic hemodialysis patients-a pilot study. Clin Nephrol 2003; 59: 441-446. (Pubitemid 36722325)
75. Thaha M, Widodo, Pranawa W et al. Intravenous N-acetylcysteine during hemodialysis reduces asymmetric dimethylarginine level in end-stage renal disease patients. Clin Nephrol 2008; 69: 24-32.
76. Swarnalatha G, Ram R, Neela P et al. Oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients receiving intravenous iron therapy and the role of N-acetylcysteine in preventing oxidative stress. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 2010; 21: 852-858.
77. Garcia-Fernandez N, Echeverria A, Sanchez-Ibarrola A et al. Randomized clinical trial on acute effects of i.v. iron sucrose during haemodialysis. Nephrology (Carlton) 2010; 15: 178-183.
78. Millea PJ. N-acetylcysteine: multiple clinical applications. Am Fam Physician 2009; 80: 265-269.
79. Hoffer E, Baum Y, Tabak A et al. N-acetylcysteine increases the glutathione content and protects rat alveolar type II cells against paraquat-induced cytotoxicity. Toxicol Lett 1996; 84: 7-12. (Pubitemid 26052946)
80. Girouard H, Chulak C, Wu L et al. N-acetylcysteine improves nitric oxide and alpha-adrenergic pathways in mesenteric beds of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am J Hypertens 2003; 16: 577-584. (Pubitemid 36829708)
81. Chang JW, Lee EK, Kim TH et al. Effects of alpha-lipoic acid on the plasma levels of asymmetric dimethylarginine in diabetic end-stage renal disease patients on hemodialysis: a pilot study. Am J Nephrol 2007; 27: 70-74. (Pubitemid 46364543)
82. Anderssohn M, Schwedhelm E, Luneburg N et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine as a mediator of vascular dysfunction and a marker of cardiovascular disease and mortality: an intriguing interaction with diabetes mellitus. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2010; 7: 105-118.
83. Hussein O, Rosenblat M, Refael G et al. Dietary selenium increases cellular glutathione peroxidase activity and reduces the enhanced susceptibility to lipid peroxidation of plasma and low-density lipoprotein in kidney transplant recipients. Transplantation 1997; 63: 679-685. (Pubitemid 27132200)
84. Richard MJ, Ducros V, Foret M et al. Reversal of selenium and zinc deficiencies in chronic hemodialysis patients by intravenous sodium selenite and zinc gluconate supplementation. Time-course of glutathione peroxidase repletion and lipid peroxidation decrease. Biol Trace Elem Res 1993; 39: 149-159. (Pubitemid 24006072)
85. Koenig JS, Fischer M, Bulant E et al. Antioxidant status in patients on chronic hemodialysis therapy: impact of parenteral selenium supplementation. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1997; 109: 13-19. (Pubitemid 27049241)
86. Adamowicz A, Trafikowska U, Trafikowska A et al. Effect of erythropoietin therapy and selenium supplementation on selected antioxidant parameters in blood of uremic patients on long-term hemodialysis. Med Sci Monit 2002; 8: CR202-CR205. (Pubitemid 34263054)
87. Himmelfarb J, Phinney S, Ikizler TA et al. Gamma-tocopherol and docosahexaenoic acid decrease inflammation in dialysis patients. J Ren Nutr 2007; 17: 296-304. (Pubitemid 47284905)
88. Sakata T, Furuya R, Shimazu T et al. Coenzyme Q10 administration suppresses both oxidative and antioxidative markers in hemodialysis patients. Blood Purif 2008; 26: 371-378.
89. Hassan MQ, Hussain SA, Zaki MA et al. Protective effects of antioxidants against uraemia-induced lipid peroxidation and glutathione depletion in humans. Pharmacol Toxicol 1995; 77: 407-411.
90. Sato M, Matsumoto Y, Morita H et al. Effects of vitamin supplementation on microcirculatory disturbance in hemodialysis patients without peripheral arterial disease. Clin Nephrol 2003; 60: 28-34. (Pubitemid 36889550)
91. Castilla P, Echarri R, Davalos A et al. Concentrated red grape juice exerts antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and antiinflammatory effects in both hemodialysis patients and healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 84: 252-262. (Pubitemid 44699192)
92. Castilla P, Davalos A, Teruel JL et al. Comparative effects of dietary supplementation with red grape juice and vitamin E on production of superoxide by circulating neutrophil NADPH oxidase in hemodialysis patients. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 87: 1053-1061. (Pubitemid 351549253)
93. Kamgar M, Zaldivar F, Vaziri ND et al. Antioxidant therapy does not ameliorate oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with end-stage renal disease. J Natl Med Assoc 2009; 101: 336-344.
94. Moradi H, Ganji S, Kamanna V et al. Increased monocyte adhesionpromoting capacity of plasma in end-stage renal disease-response to antioxidant therapy. Clin Nephrol 2010; 74: 273-281.
95. Chao JCJ, Yuan MD, Chen PY et al. Vitamin C and E supplements improve the impaired antioxidant status and decrease plasma lipid peroxides in hemodialysis patients. J Nutr Biochem 2002; 13: 653-663.
96. Csiszar A. Anti-inflammatory effects of resveratrol: possible role in prevention of age-related cardiovascular disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 2011; 1215: 117-122.
97. Shukla Y, Singh R. Resveratrol and cellular mechanisms of cancer prevention. Ann NY Acad Sci 2011; 1215: 1-8.
98. Nuttall SL, Kendall MJ, Townend JN et al. Vitamin E supplementation. Lancet 2001; 357: 631.
99. Boaz M, Smetana S, Green MS. Authors' reply. Lancet 2001; 357: 632-633.
100. Ono K. The effect of vitamin C supplementation and withdrawal on the mortality and morbidity of regular hemodialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 1989; 31: 31-34. (Pubitemid 19033533)
101. Ristow M, Zarse K, Oberbach A et al. Antioxidants prevent healthpromoting effects of physical exercise in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106: 8665-8670.
102. Reed A, Cho YJ, Coombes JS et al. Time course and dose response of alpha tocopherol on oxidative stress in haemodialysis patients. BMC Nephrol 2009; 10: 32.