Pathophysiology of resistant hypertension: The role of sympathetic nervous system

International Journal of Hypertension

Volumn 2011, Issue , 2011, Pages

  Tsioufis, Costas ^a   Kordalis, Athanasios ^a   Flessas, Dimitris ^a   Anastasopoulos, Ioannis ^a   Tsiachris, Dimitris ^a   Papademetriou, Vasilios ^a   Stefanadis, Christodoulos ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADIPOCYTOKINE; ADRENALIN; ALDOSTERONE; ALDOSTERONE ANTAGONIST; ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANGIOTENSIN; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CHLORTALIDONE; EPLERENONE; MINERALOCORTICOID ANTAGONIST; NORADRENALIN; SPIRONOLACTONE;

ADRENERGIC ACTIVITY; ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; AUTONOMIC DENERVATION; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CAROTID SINUS PRESSORECEPTOR; CHEMORECEPTOR; CHRONIC INTERMITTENT HYPOXIA; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; HEART RATE VARIABILITY; HUMAN; HYPERALDOSTERONISM; INSULIN RESISTANCE; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PHENOTYPE; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RESISTANT HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING;

EID: 84856192408     PISSN: 20900384     EISSN: 20900392     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4061/2011/642416     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. Oparil S., Zaman M. A., Calhoun D. A., Pathogenesis of hypertension. Annals of Internal Medicine 2003 139 9 761 776 2-s2.0-0642341369 (Pubitemid 38139234)
2. World Health Organization, World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life 2002 Geneva, Switzerland World Health Organization
3. Sarafidis P. A., Bakris G. L., Resistant hypertension: an overview of evaluation and treatment. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2008 52 22 1749 1757 2-s2.0-56149084750 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.08.036
4. Grassi G., Assessment of sympathetic cardiovascular drive in human hypertension: achievements and perspectives. Hypertension 2009 54 4 690 697 2-s2.0-70349656069 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.119883
5. Grassi G., Seravalle G., Bertinieri G., Turri C., Dell'Oro R., Stella M. L., Mancia G., Sympathetic and reflex alterations in systo-diastolic and systolic hypertension of the elderly. Journal of Hypertension 2000 18 5 587 593 2-s2.0-0034111309 (Pubitemid 30303490)
6. Grassi G., Seravalle G., Trevano F. Q., Dell'Oro R., Bolla G., Cuspidi C., Arenare F., Mancia G., Neurogenic abnormalities in masked hypertension. Hypertension 2007 50 3 537 542 2-s2.0-34548177542 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107. 092528 (Pubitemid 47312241)
7. Grassi G., Seravalle G., Quarti-Trevano F., Dell'Oro R., Bombelli M., Cuspidi C., Facchetti R., Bolla G., Mancia G., Adrenergic, metabolic, and reflex abnormalities in reverse and extreme dipper hypertensives. Hypertension 2008 52 5 925 931 2-s2.0-55949124727 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.116368
8. Schobel H. P., Fischer T., Heuszer K., Geiger H., Schmieder R. E., Preeclampsiaa state of sympathetic overactivity. The New England Journal of Medicine 1996 335 20 1480 1485 2-s2.0-0029910566 10.1056/NEJM199611143352002 (Pubitemid 26376680)
9. Anderson E. A., Sinkey C. A., Lawton W. J., Mark A. L., Elevated sympathetic nerve activity in borderline hypertensive humans. Evidence from direct intraneural recordings. Hypertension 1989 14 2 177 183 2-s2.0-0024318279 (Pubitemid 19205172)
10. Grassi G., Cattaneo B. M., Seravalle G., Lanfranchi A., Mancia G., Baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity in essential and secondary hypertension. Hypertension 1998 31 1 68 72 2-s2.0-0031915176 (Pubitemid 28124694)
11. Calhoun D. A., Jones D., Textor S., Goff D. C., Murphy T. P., Toto R. D., White A., Cushman W. C., White W., Sica D., Ferdinand K., Giles T. D., Falkner B., Carey R. M., Resistant hypertension: siagnosis, evaluation, and treatment a scientific statement from the american heart association professional education committee of the council for high blood pressure research. Hypertension 2008 51 6 1403 1419 2-s2.0-49249106417 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.108.189141
12. Joyner M. J., Charkoudian N., Wallin B. G., Sympathetic nervous system and blood pressure in humans: individualized patterns of regulation and their implications. Hypertension 2010 56 1 10 16 2-s2.0-77953810427 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.140186
13. Hart E. C., Joyner M. J., Wallin B. G., Johnson C. P., Curry T. B., Eisenach J. H., Charkoudian N., Age-related differences in the sympathetic-hemodynamic balance in men. Hypertension 2009 54 1 127 133 2-s2.0-67649842608 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.131417
14. Jones P. P., Shapiro L. F., Keisling G. A., Jordan J., Shannon J. R., Quaife R. A., Seals D. R., Altered autonomic support of arterial blood pressure with age in healthy men. Circulation 2001 104 20 2424 2429 2-s2.0-0035856549 (Pubitemid 33108375)
15. Fagius J., Wallin B. G., Long-term variability and reproducibility of resting human muscle nerve sympathetic activity at rest, as reassessed after a decade. Clinical Autonomic Research 1993 3 3 201 205 2-s2.0-0027164718 (Pubitemid 23244976)
16. Sundlof G., Wallin B. G., Human muscle nerve sympathetic activity at rest. Relationship to blood pressure and age. Journal of Physiology 1978 274 621 637 2-s2.0-0017903818 (Pubitemid 8284570)
17. Narkiewicz K., Phillips B. G., Kato M., Hering D., Bieniaszewski L., Somers V. K., Gender-selective interaction between aging, blood pressure, and sympathetic nerve activity. Hypertension 2005 45 4 522 525 2-s2.0-15744381055 10.1161/01.HYP.0000160318.46725.46 (Pubitemid 40411253)
18. Calhoun D. A., Nishizaka M. K., Zaman M. A., Thakkar R. B., Weissmann P., Hyperaldosteronism among black and white subjects with resistant hypertension. Hypertension 2002 40 6 892 896 2-s2.0-0036898286 10.1161/01.HYP.0000040261. 30455.B6 (Pubitemid 35434912)
19. Logan A. G., Perlikowski S. M., Mente A., Tisler A., Tkacova R., Niroumand M., Leung R. S. T., Bradley T. D., High prevalence of unrecognized sleep apnoea in drug-resistant hypertension. Journal of Hypertension 2001 19 12 2271 2277 2-s2.0-0035215206 10.1097/00004872-200112000-00022 (Pubitemid 33135251)
20. Calhoun D. A., Nishizaka M. K., Zaman M. A., Harding S. M., Aldosterone excretion among subjects with resistant hypertension and symptoms of sleep apnea. Chest 2004 125 1 112 117 2-s2.0-1442307014 10.1378/chest.125.1.112 (Pubitemid 38114572)
21. Lloyd-Jones D. M., Evans J. C., Larson M. G., O'Donnell C. J., Roccella E. J., Levy D., Differential control of systolic and diastolic blood pressure factors associated with lack of blood pressure control in the community. Hypertension 2000 36 4 594 599 2-s2.0-0033779238
22. Bramlage P., Pittrow D., Wittchen H. U., Kirch W., Boehler S., Lehnert H., Hoefler M., Unger T., Sharma A. M., Hypertension in overweight and obese primary care patients is highly prevalent and poorly controlled. American Journal of Hypertension 2004 17 10 904 910 2-s2.0-5544244681 10.1016/j.amjhyper.2004.05.017 (Pubitemid 39366016)
23. Esler M., Straznicky N., Eikelis N., Masuo K., Lambert G., Lambert E., Mechanisms of sympathetic activation in obesity-related hypertension. Hypertension 2006 48 5 787 796 2-s2.0-33750281024 10.1161/01.HYP.0000242642. 42177.49 (Pubitemid 44610980)
24. Vaz M., Jennings G., Turner A., Cox H., Lambert G., Esler M., Regional sympathetic nervous activity and oxygen consumption in obese normotensive human subjects. Circulation 1997 96 10 3423 3429 2-s2.0-0030774228 (Pubitemid 27513415)
25. Grassi G., Colombo M., Seravalle G., Spaziani D., Mancia G., Dissociation between muscle and skin sympathetic nerve activity in essential hypertension, obesity, and congestive heart failure. Hypertension 1998 31 1 64 67 2-s2.0-0031915987 (Pubitemid 28124693)
26. Grassi G., Seravalle G., Cattaneo B. M., Bolla G. B., Lanfranchi A., Colombo M., Giannattasio C., Brunani A., Cavagnini F., Mancia G., Sympathetic activation in obese normotensive subjects. Hypertension 1995 25 4 560 563 2-s2.0-0028939936
27. Rumantir M. S., Vaz M., Jennings G. L., Collier G., Kaye D. M., Seals D. R., Wiesner G. H., Brunner-La Rocca H. P., Esler M. D., Neural mechanisms in human obesity-related hypertension. Journal of Hypertension 1999 17 8 1125 1133 2-s2.0-0032796681 10.1097/00004872-199917080-00012 (Pubitemid 29389560)
28. Alvarez G. E., Beske S. D., Ballard T. P., Davy K. P., Sympathetic neural activation in visceral obesity. Circulation 2002 106 20 2533 2536 2-s2.0-0037069321 10.1161/01.CIR.0000041244.79165.25 (Pubitemid 35340687)
29. Alvarez G. E., Ballard T. P., Beske S. D., Davy K. P., Subcutaneous obesity is not associated with sympathetic neural activation. American Journal of Physiology 2004 287 1 H414 H418 2-s2.0-1942517065 10.1152/ajpheart.01046.2003 (Pubitemid 38802379)
30. Vollenweider P., Tappy L., Randin D., Schneiter P., Jequier E., Nicod P., Scherrer U., Differential effects of hyperinsulinemia and carbohydrate metabolism on sympathetic nerve activity and muscle blood flow in humans. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 1993 92 1 147 154 2-s2.0-0027184924 (Pubitemid 23208990)
31. Gudbjornsdottir S., Friberg P., Elam M., Attvall S., Lonnroth P., Wallin B. G., The effect of metformin and insulin on sympathetic nerve activity, norepinephrine spillover and blood pressure in obese, insulin resistant, normoglycemic, hypertensive men. Blood Pressure 1994 3 6 394 403 2-s2.0-0028143715 (Pubitemid 24380426)
32. Rahmouni K., Morgan D. A., Hypothalamic arcuate nucleus mediates the sympathetic and arterial pressure responses to leptin. Hypertension 2007 49 3 647 652 2-s2.0-33847058514 10.1161/01.HYP.0000254827.59792.b2
33. Guagnano M. T., Manigrasso M. R., Ballone E., Della Vecchia R., Riccioni G., Marinopiccoli M., Nutini M., Sensi S., Davì G., Association between serum leptin levels and 24-hour blood pressure in obese women. Obesity Research 2003 11 4 549 555 2-s2.0-0142248877 (Pubitemid 41202416)
34. Paolisso G., Manzella D., Montano N., Gambardella A., Varricchio M., Plasma leptin concentrations and cardiac autonomic nervous system in healthy subjects with different body weights. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2000 85 5 1810 1814 2-s2.0-0034455966 10.1210/jc.85.5.1810 (Pubitemid 32269281)
35. Eikelis N., Schlaich M., Aggarwal A., Kaye D., Esler M., Interactions between leptin and the human sympathetic nervous system. Hypertension 2003 41 5 1072 1079 2-s2.0-0038334588 10.1161/01.HYP.0000066289.17754.49 (Pubitemid 36548605)
36. Rosenbaum M., Goldsmith R., Bloomfield D., Magnano A., Weimer L., Heymsfield S., Gallagher D., Mayer L., Murphy E., Leibel R. L., Low-dose leptin reverses skeletal muscle, autonomic, and neuroendocrine adaptations to maintenance of reduced weight. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 2005 115 12 3579 3586 2-s2.0-31044444463 10.1172/JCI25977 (Pubitemid 43121846)
37. Mackintosh R. M., Hirsch J., The effects of leptin administration in non-obese human subjects. Obesity Research 2001 9 8 462 469 2-s2.0-0035431169 (Pubitemid 33600290)
38. Chan J. L., Mietus J. E., Raciti P. M., Goldberger A. L., Mantzoros C. S., Short-term fasting-induced autonomic activation and changes in catecholamine levels are not mediated by changes in leptin levels in healthy humans. Clinical Endocrinology 2007 66 1 49 57 2-s2.0-33845624298 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2006. 02684.x (Pubitemid 44952494)
39. Winnicki M., Phillips B. G., Accurso V., van de Borne P., Shamsuzzaman A., Patil K., Narkiewicz K., Somers V. K., Independent association between plasma leptin levels and heart rate in heart transplant recipients. Circulation 2001 104 4 384 386 2-s2.0-0035943054 (Pubitemid 32678265)
40. DiBona G. F., Nervous kidney: interaction between renal sympathetic nerves and the renin-angiotensin system in the control of renal function. Hypertension 2000 36 6 1083 1088 2-s2.0-0033664496
41. Ferrario C. M., Gildenberg P. L., McCubbin J. W., Cardiovascular effects of angiotensin mediated by the central nervous system. Circulation Research 1972 30 3 257 262 2-s2.0-0015305522
42. Zimmerman B. G., Sybertz E. J., Wong P. C., Interaction between sympathetic and renin-angiotensin system. Journal of Hypertension 1984 2 6 581 587 2-s2.0-0021748527 (Pubitemid 15188008)
43. Grassi G., Seravalle G., Dell'Oro R., Trevano F. Q., Bombelli M., Scopelliti F., Facchini A., Mancia G., Comparative effects of candesartan and hydrochlorothiazide on blood pressure, insulin sensitivity, and sympathetic drive in obese hypertensive individuals: results of the CROSS study. Journal of Hypertension 2003 21 9 1761 1769 2-s2.0-0041885190 10.1097/00004872-200309000- 00027 (Pubitemid 37076361)
44. Krum H., Lambert E., Windebank E., Campbell D. J., Esler M., Effect of angiotensin II receptor blockade on autonomic nervous system function in patients with essential hypertension. American Journal of Physiology 2006 290 4 H1706 H1712 2-s2.0-33646084866 10.1152/ajpheart.00885.2005
45. Heusser K., Vitkovsky J., Raasch W., Schmieder R. F., Schobel H. P., Elevation of sympathetic activity by eprosartan in young male subjects. American Journal of Hypertension 2003 16 8 658 664 2-s2.0-0041366817 10.1016/S0895-7061(03)00917-8 (Pubitemid 36900589)
46. Tsioufis C., Thomopoulos C., Stefanadis C., Obstructive sleep apnoea and hypertension: a growing clinical challenge. Hellenic Journal of Cardiology 2008 49 5 299 302 2-s2.0-57349113007
47. Tsioufis C., Kasiakogias A., Thomopoulos C., Manolis A., Stefanadis C., Managing hypertension in obstructive sleep apnea: the interplay of continuous positive airway pressure, medication and chronotherapy. Journal of Hypertension 2010 28 5 875 882 2-s2.0-77951266289 10.1097/HJH.0b013e328336ed85
48. Gonçalves S. C., Martinez D., Gus M., De Abreu-Silva E. O., Bertoluci C., Dutra I., Branchi T., Moreira L. B., Fuchs S. C., De Oliveira A. C. T., Fuchs F. D., Obstructive sleep apnea and resistant hypertension: a case-control study. Chest 2007 132 6 1858 1862 2-s2.0-37549018512 10.1378/chest.07-1170
49. Ruttanaumpawan P., Nopmaneejumruslers C., Logan A. G., Lazarescu A., Qian I., Bradley T. D., Association between refractory hypertension and obstructive sleep apnea. Journal of Hypertension 2009 27 7 1439 1445 2-s2.0-67649766449 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32832af679
50. Goodfriend T. L., Calhoun D. A., Resistant hypertension, obesity, sleep apnea, and aldosterone: theory and therapy. Hypertension 2004 43 3 518 524 2-s2.0-1442338287 10.1161/01.HYP.0000116223.97436.e5 (Pubitemid 38282420)
51. Thomopoulos C., Tsioufis C., Dimitriadis K., Tsiachris D., Tousoulis D., Manolis A., Alchanatis M., Kallikazaros I., Stefanadis C., Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome is associated with enhanced sub-clinical inflammation and asymmetric dimethyl-arginine levels in hypertensives. Journal of Human Hypertension 2009 23 1 65 67 2-s2.0-57749201168 10.1038/jhh.2008.101
52. Tsioufis C., Thomopoulos K., Dimitriadis K., Amfilochiou A., Tousoulis D., Alchanatis M., Stefanadis C., Kallikazaros I., The incremental effect of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome on arterial stiffness in newly diagnosed essential hypertensive subjects. Journal of Hypertension 2007 25 1 141 146 2-s2.0-33845351680 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32801092c1 (Pubitemid 44885675)
53. Coy T. V., Dimsdale J. E., Ancoli-Israel S., Clausen J., Sleep apnoea and sympathetic nervous system activity: a review. Journal of Sleep Research 1996 5 1 42 50 2-s2.0-0029921057 (Pubitemid 26148967)
54. Somers V. K., Dyken M. E., Clary M. P., Abboud F. M., Sympathetic neural mechanisms in obstructive sleep apnea. The Journal of Clinical Investigation 1995 96 4 1897 1904 2-s2.0-0028841211
55. Carlson J. T., Hedner J., Elam M., Ejnell H., Sellgren J., Wallin B. G., Augmented resting sympathetic activity in awake patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1993 103 6 1763 1768 2-s2.0-0027238259 (Pubitemid 23174312)
56. Grassi G., Facchini A., Trevano F. Q., Dell'Oro R., Arenare F., Tana F., Bolla G., Monzani A., Robuschi M., Mancia G., Obstructive sleep apnea-dependent and -independent adrenergic activation in obesity. Hypertension 2005 46 2 321 325 2-s2.0-23244437764 10.1161/01.HYP.0000174243.39897.6c (Pubitemid 41099164)
57. Narkiewicz K., Montano N., Cogliati C., van de Borne P. J. H., Dyken M. E., Somers V. K., Altered cardiovascular variability in obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 1998 98 11 1071 1077 2-s2.0-0032530268 (Pubitemid 28420698)
58. Narkiewicz K., Kato M., Phillips B. G., Pesek C. A., Davison D. E., Somers V. K., Nocturnal continuous positive airway pressure decreases daytime sympathetic traffic in obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 1999 100 23 2332 2335 2-s2.0-0033534086
59. Waradekar N. V., Sinoway L. I., Zwillich C. W., Leuenberger U. A., Influence of treatment on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in sleep apnea. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 1996 153 4 1333 1338 2-s2.0-0029968810 (Pubitemid 26112600)
60. Mills P. J., Kennedy B. P., Loredo J. S., Dimsdale J. E., Ziegler M. G., Effects of nasal continuous positive airway pressure and oxygen supplementation on norepinephrine kinetics and cardiovascular responses in obstructive sleep apnea. Journal of Applied Physiology 2006 100 1 343 348 2-s2.0-33644824345 10.1152/japplphysiol.00494.2005 (Pubitemid 43671127)
61. Hornyak M., Cejnar M., Elam M., Matousek M., Wallin B. G., Sympathetic muscle nerve activity during sleep in man. Brain 1991 114 3 1281 1295 2-s2.0-0025835677
62. Loredo J. S., Ziegler M. G., Ancoli-Israel S., Clausen J. L., Dimsdale J. E., Relationship of arousals from sleep to sympathetic nervous system activity and BP in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1999 116 3 655 659 2-s2.0-0032819962 10.1378/chest.116.3.655 (Pubitemid 29428480)
63. Narkiewicz K., van de Borne P. J. H., Montano N., Dyken M. E., Phillips B. G., Somers V. K., Contribution of tonic chemoreflex activation to sympathetic activity and blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 1998 97 10 943 945 2-s2.0-0032539896 (Pubitemid 28125464)
64. Weiss J. W., Liu M. D. Y., Huang J., Physiological basis for a causal relationship of obstructive sleep apnoea to hypertension. Experimental Physiology 2007 92 1 21 26 2-s2.0-33846234639 10.1113/expphysiol.2006.035733 (Pubitemid 46096250)
65. Lam S. Y., Fung M. L., Leung P. S., Regulation of the angiotensin-converting enzyme activity by a time-course hypoxia in the carotid body. Journal of Applied Physiology 2004 96 2 809 813 2-s2.0-0942276798 10.1152/japplphysiol.00684.2003 (Pubitemid 38140191)
66. Vasan R. S., Evans J. C., Larson M. G., Wilson P. W. F., Meigs J. B., Rifai N., Benjamin E. J., Levy D., Serum aldosterone and the incidence of hypertension in nonhypertensive persons. The New England Journal of Medicine 2004 351 1 33 111 2-s2.0-3042731163 10.1056/NEJMoa033263 (Pubitemid 38857245)
67. El-Gharbawy A. H., Nadig V. S., Kotchen J. M., Grim C. E., Sagar K. B., Kaldunski M., Hamet P., Pausova Z., Gaudet D., Gossard F., Kotchen T. A., Arterial pressure, left ventricular mass, and aldosterone in essential hypertension. Hypertension 2001 37 3 845 850 2-s2.0-0035108054 (Pubitemid 32221602)
68. Grim C. E., Cowley A. W., Hamet P., Gaudet D., Kaldunski M. L., Kotchen J. M., Krishnaswami S., Pausova Z., Roman R., Tremblay J., Kotchen T. A., Hyperaldosteronism and hypertension ethnic differences. Hypertension 2005 45 4 766 772 2-s2.0-20144369497 10.1161/01.HYP.0000154364.00763.d5 (Pubitemid 40418379)
69. Mosso L., Carvajal C., González A., Barraza A., Avila F., Montero J., Huete A., Gederlini A., Fardella C. E., Primary aldosteronism and hypertensive disease. Hypertension 2003 42 2 161 165 2-s2.0-0042266234 10.1161/01.HYP.0000079505.25750.11 (Pubitemid 36944590)
70. Gallay B. J., Ahmad S., Xu L., Toivola B., Davidson R. C., Screening for primary aldosteronism without discontinuing hypertensive medications: plasma aldosterone-renin ratio. American Journal of Kidney Diseases 2001 37 4 699 705 (Pubitemid 32268029)
71. Eide I. K., Torjesen P. A., Drolsum A., Babovic A., Lilledahl N. P., Low-renin status in therapy-resistant hypertension: a clue to efficient treatment. Journal of Hypertension 2004 22 11 2217 2226 2-s2.0-7744227337 10.1097/00004872-200411000-00026 (Pubitemid 39463817)
72. Štrauch B., Zelinka T., Hampf M., Bernhardt R., Widimsky J. Jr., Prevalence of primary hyperaldosteronism in moderate to severe hypertension in the Central Europe region. Journal of Human Hypertension 2003 17 5 349 352 2-s2.0-0037500115 10.1038/sj.jhh.1001554 (Pubitemid 36625965)
73. Gaddam K. K., Nishizaka M. K., Pratt-Ubunama M. N., Pimenta E., Aban I., Oparil S., Calhoun D. A., Characterization of resistant hypertension: association between resistant hypertension, aldosterone, and persistent intravascular volume expansion. Archives of Internal Medicine 2008 168 11 1159 1164 2-s2.0-45149100695 10.1001/archinte.168.11.1159 (Pubitemid 351831398)
74. Sowers J. R., Whaley-Connell A., Epstein M., Narrative review: the emerging clinical implications of the role of aldosterone in the metabolic syndrome and resistant hypertension. Annals of Internal Medicine 2009 150 11 776 783 2-s2.0-66549130863
75. Tsioufis C., Tsiachris D., Dimitriadis K., Stougiannos P., Missovoulos P., Kakkavas A., Stefanadis C., Kallikazaros I., Myocardial and aortic stiffening in the early course of primary aldosteronism. Clinical Cardiology 2008 31 9 431 436 2-s2.0-53049096685 10.1002/clc.20270
76. Menon D. V., Arbique D., Wang Z., Adams-Huet B., Auchus R. J., Vongpatanasin W., Differential effects of chlorthalidone versus spironolactone on muscle sympathetic nerve activity in hypertensive patients. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2009 94 4 1361 1366 2-s2.0-65249137181 10.1210/jc.2008-2660
77. Wray D. W., Supiano M. A., Impact of aldosterone receptor blockade compared with thiazide therapy on sympathetic nervous system function in geriatric hypertension. Hypertension 2010 55 5 1217 1223 2-s2.0-77951451927 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.147058
78. Rahmouni K., Barthelmebs M., Grima M., Imbs J. L., De Jong W., Involvement of brain mineralocorticoid receptor in salt-enhanced hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertension 2001 38 4 902 906 2-s2.0-0035726581 (Pubitemid 34258690)
79. Gomez-Sanchez E. P., Central mineralocorticoid receptors and cardiovascular disease. Neuroendocrinology 2009 90 3 245 250 2-s2.0-70350274281 10.1159/000227807
80. Yu Y., Wei S. G., Zhang Z. H., Gomez-Sanchez E., Weiss R. M., Felder R. B., Does aldosterone upregulate the brain renin-angiotensin system in rats with heart failure? Hypertension 2008 51 3 727 733 2-s2.0-39749093127 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.099796 (Pubitemid 351301527)
81. Grassi G., Esler M., How to assess sympathetic activity in humans. Journal of Hypertension 1999 17 6 719 734 2-s2.0-0033024752 10.1097/00004872- 199917060-00001 (Pubitemid 29322156)
82. Grassi G., Vailati S., Bertinieri G., Seravalle G., Stella M. L., Dell'Oro R., Mancia G., Heart rate as marker of sympathetic activity. Journal of Hypertension 1998 16 11 1635 1639 2-s2.0-0031736750 (Pubitemid 28515490)
83. Kopin I. J., Catecholamine metabolism: basic aspects and clinical significance. Pharmacological Reviews 1985 37 4 333 364 2-s2.0-0022369108 (Pubitemid 16106624)
84. Grassi G., Bolla G., Seravalle G., Turri C., Lanfranchi A., Mancia G., Comparison between reproducibility and sensitivity of muscle sympathetic nerve traffic and plasma noradrenaline in man. Clinical Science 1997 92 3 285 289 2-s2.0-0030888977 (Pubitemid 27129442)
85. Mancia G., giuseppe.mancia@unimib.it De Backer G., Guy.DeBacker@ugent.be Dominiczak A., Cifkova R., Fagard R., Germano G., Grassi G., Heagerty A. M., Kjeldsen S. E., Laurent S., Narkiewicz K., Ruilope L., Rynkiewicz A., Schmieder R. E., Struijker Boudier H. A.J., Zanchetti A., 2007 Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the Management of Arterial Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). European Heart Journal 2007 28 12 1462 1536 10.1093/eurheartj/ehm236 (Pubitemid 47351115)
86. Zannad F., Aldosterone antagonist therapy in resistant hypertension. Journal of Hypertension 2007 25 4 747 750 2-s2.0-33947131229 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3280d9434e (Pubitemid 46398868)
87. Nishizaka M. K., Zaman M. A., Calhoun D. A., Efficacy of low-dose spironolactone in subjects with resistant hypertension. American Journal of Hypertension 2003 16 11 925 930 2-s2.0-0142231538 10.1016/S0895-7061(03)01032-X (Pubitemid 37315491)
88. Scheffers I. J. M., Kroon A. A., Schmidli J., Jordan J., Tordoir J. J. M., Mohaupt M. G., Luft F. C., Haller H., Menne J., Engeli S., Ceral J., Eckert S., Erglis A., Narkiewicz K., Philipp T., De Leeuw P. W., p.deleeuw@intmed. unimaas.nl Novel baroreflex activation therapy in resistant hypertension: results of a European multi-center feasibility study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 2010 56 15 1254 1258 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.03.089
89. Krum H., Schlaich M., Whitbourn R., Sobotka P. A., Sadowski J., Bartus K., Kapelak B., Walton A., Sievert H., Thambar S., Abraham W. T., Esler M., Catheter-based renal sympathetic denervation for resistant hypertension: a multicentre safety and proof-of-principle cohort study. The Lancet 2009 373 9671 1275 1281 2-s2.0-64049084640 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60566-3