The nervous system: Functional changes with aging

Physiological Basis of Aging and Geriatrics, Fourth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 89-107

  Timiras, Paola S ^a   Maletta, Gabe J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84555201431     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (149)

1. Beard CM, Kokmen E, Sigler C, et al. Causes of death in Alzheimer’s disease. Ann Epidemiol 1996; 6(3): 195-200.
2. Baloh RW, Spain S, Socotch TM, et al. Posturography and balance problems in older people. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995; 43(6): 638-644.
3. Alexander NB. Gait disorders in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44(4): 434-451.
4. Haibach PS, Slobounov SM, Slobounova ES, et al. Virtual time-tocontact of postural stability boundaries as a function of support surface compliance. Exp Brain Res 2007; 177(4): 471-482.
5. Tang PF, Woollacott MH. Inefficient postural responses to unexpected slips during walking in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998; 53(6): M471-M480.
6. Baker DI, King MB, Fortinsky RH, et al. Dissemination of an evidence-based multicomponent fall risk-assessment and-management strategy throughout a geographic area. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005; 53(4): 675-680.
7. Chou WC, Tinetti ME, King MB, et al. Perceptions of physicians on the barriers and facilitators to integrating fall risk evaluation and management into practice. J Gen Intern Med 2006; 21(2): 117-122.
8. Luukinen H, Herala M, Koski K, et al. Rapid increase of fallrelated severe head injuries with age among older people: a population-based study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47(12): 1451-1452.
9. VanSwearingen JM, Paschal KA, Bonino P, et al. The modified Gait Abnormality Rating Scale for recognizing the risk of recurrent falls in community-dwelling elderly adults. Phys Ther 1996; 76(9): 994-1002.
10. Covinsky KE, Kahana E, Kahana B, et al. History and mobility exam index to identify community-dwelling elderly persons at risk of falling. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2001; 56(4): M253-M259.
11. Bloem BR, Gussekloo J, Lagaay AM, et al. Idiopathic senile gait disorders are signs of subclinical disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48(9): 1098-1101.
12. Gardener EA, Huppert FA, Guralnik JM, et al. Middle-aged and mobility-limited: prevalence of disability and symptom attributions in a national survey. J Gen Intern Med 2006; 21(10): 1091-1096.
13. Fried LP, Bandeen-Roche K, Chaves PH, et al. Preclinical mobility disability predicts incident mobility disability in older women. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55(1): M43-M52.
14. Begg RK, Sparrow WA. Gait characteristics of young and older individuals negotiating a raised surface: implications for the prevention of falls. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55(3): M147-M154.
15. Wolfson L. Gait and balance dysfunction: a model of the interaction of age and disease. Neuroscientist 2001; 7(2): 178-183.
16. Sundermier L, Woollacott MH, Jensen JL, et al. Postural sensitivity to visual flow in aging adults with and without balance problems. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1996; 51(2): M45-M52.
17. Tang PF, Moore S, Woollacott MH. Correlation between two clinical balance measures in older adults: functional mobility and sensory organization test. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998; 53(2): M140-M146.
18. Richardson JK, Hurvitz EA. Peripheral neuropathy: a true risk factor for falls. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1995; 50(4): M211-M215.
19. McCully K, Leiper C, Sanders T, et al. The effects of peripheral vascular disease on gait. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1999; 54(7): B291-B294.
20. Wojcik LA, Thelen DG, Schultz AB, et al. Age and gender differences in peak lower extremity joint torques and ranges of motion used during single-step balance recovery from a forward fall. J Biomech 2001; 34(1): 64-73.
21. Woolley SM, Czaja SJ, Drury CG. An assessment of falls in elderly men and women. J Gerontol 1997; 52(2): M80-M87.
22. Clemson L, Cumming RG, Kendig H, et al. The effectiveness of a community-based program for reducing the incidence of falls in the elderly: a randomized trial. J Am Geriatr Soc 2004; 52(9): 1487-1494.
23. Cumming RG, Salkeld G, Thomas M, et al. Prospective study of the impact of fear of falling on activities of daily living, SF-36 scores and nursing home admission. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55(5): M299-M305.
24. Shumway-Cook A, Woollacott M. Attentional demands and postural control: the effect of sensory context. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55(1): M10-M16.
25. Schwartz AV, Villa ML, Prill M, et al. Falls in older Mexican-American women. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47(11): 1371-1378.
26. Davis JW, Ross PD, Nevitt MC, et al. Risk factors for falls and serious injuries among older Japanese women in Hawaii. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47(7): 792-198.
27. Rosengren KS, McAuley E, Woods D, et al. Gait, balance, and selfefficacy in older black and white American women. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48(6): 707-709.
28. Blair SN, Garcia ME. Get up and move: a call to action for older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44(5): 599-600.
29. LaMonte MJ, Blair SN. Physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and adiposity: contributions to disease risk. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2006; 9(5): 540-546.
30. van Praag H, Shubert T, Zhao C, et al. Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice. J Neurosci 2005; 25(38): 8680-8685.
31. Allen DR, van Praag H, Ray J, et al. Ataxia telangiectasia mutated is essential during adult neurogenesis. Genes Dev 2001; 15(5): 554-566.
32. Eriksson PS. Neurogenesis and its implications for regeneration in the adult brain. J Rehabil Med 2003; 41(suppl): 17-19.
33. Fuchs E, Gould E. Mini-review: in vivo neurogenesis in the adult brain: regulation and functional implications. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12(7): 2211-2214.
34. Magri F, Locatelli M, Balza G, et al. Changes in endocrine circadian rhythms as markers of physiological and pathological brain aging. Chronobiol Intl 1997; 14(4): 385-396.
35. Halgberg F, Cornelissen G, Watanabe Y, et al. Near 10-year and longer periods modulate circadians: intersecting anti-aging and chronoastrobiological research. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2001; 56(5): M304-M324.
36. Refinetti R. Circadian Physiology. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2006.
37. Winocur G, Hasher L. Age and time-of-day effects on learning and memory in a non-matching-to-sample test. Neurobiol Aging 2004; 25(8): 1107-1115.
38. Tankersley CG, Irizarry R, Flanders SE, et al. Unstable heart rate and temperature regulation predict mortality in AKR/J mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003; 284(3): R742-R750.
39. O’Sullivan C, Duggan J, Atkins N, et al. Twenty-four-hour ambulatory blood pressure in community-dwelling elderly men and women, aged 60-102 years. J Hypertens 2003; 21(9): 1641-1647.
40. Hurd MW, Ralph MR. The significance of circadian organization for longevity in the golden hamster. J Biol Rhythms 1998; 13(5): 430-436.
41. Baehr EK, Revelle W, Eastman CI. Individual differences in the phase and amplitude of the human circadian temperature rhythm: with an emphasis on morningness-eveningness. J Sleep Res 2000; 9(2): 117-127.
42. Roth T, Drake CL. Understanding the effects of age on “normal” human sleep. Sleep 2004; 27(7): 1238-1239.
43. Vitiello MV. Sleep disorders and aging: understanding the causes. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1997; 52(4): M189-M191.
44. Blazer DG, Hays JC, Foley DJ. Sleep complaints in older adults: a racial comparison. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1995; 50(5): M280-M284.
45. Campbell SS, Dawson D, Anderson MW. Alleviation of sleep maintenance insomnia with timed exposure to bright light. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41(8): 829-836.
46. Campbell SS, Murphy PJ. Relationships between sleep and body temperature in middle-aged and older subjects. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46(4): 458-462.
47. van Hilten JJ, Middelkoop HA, Braat EA, et al. Nocturnal activity and immobility across aging (50-98 years) in healthy persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41(8): 837-841.
48. Maggi S, Langlois JA, Minicuci N, et al. Sleep complaints in community-dwelling older persons: prevalence, associated factors, and reported causes. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46(2): 161-168.
49. Cirelli C. A molecular window on sleep: changes in gene expression between sleep and wakefulness. Neuroscientist 2005; 11(1): 63-74.
50. Endeshaw Y, Bliwise D. Sleep disorders in the elderly. In: Agronin M, Maletta G, eds. Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 506-522.
51. Alessi CA, Yoon EJ, Schnelle JF, et al. A randomized trial of a combined physical activity and environmental intervention in nursing home residents: do sleep and agitation improve? J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47(7): 784-791.
52. Dealberto MJ, Pajot N, Courbon D, et al. Breathing disorders during sleep and cognitive performance in an older community sample: the EVA study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44(11): 1287-1294.
53. Bliwise DL. Is sleep apnea a cause of reversible dementia in old age? J Am Geriatr Soc 1996; 44(11): 1407-1409.
54. Brassington GS, King AC, Bliwise DL. Sleep problems as a risk factor for falls in a sample of community-dwelling adults aged 64-99 years. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48(r10): 1234-1240.
55. Teran-Santos J, Jimenez-Gomez A, Cordero-Guevara J. The association between sleep apnea and the risk of traffic accidents. Cooperative Group Burgos-Santander. N Engl J Med 1999; 340(11): 847-851.
56. Knuiman M, James A, Divitini M, et al. Longitudinal study of risk factors for habitual snoring in a general adult population: the Busselton Health Study. Chest 2006; 130(6): 1779-1783.
57. Newman AB, Enright PL, Manolio TA, et al. Sleep disturbance, psychosocial correlates and cardiovascular disease in 5201 adults: the Cardiovascular Health Study. JAmGeriatr Soc 1997; 45(1): 1-7.
58. Youngstedt SD, Kripke DF, Klauber MR, et al. Periodic leg movements during sleep and sleep disturbances in elders. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998; 53(5): M391-M394.
59. Wilcox, S, Brenes GA, Levine D, et al. Factors related to sleep disturbance in older adults experiencing knee pain or knee pain with radiographic evidence of knee osteoarthritis. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48(10): 1241-1251.
60. Frazer A, Hensler G. Serotonin. In: Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Fisher SK, Uhler MD, eds. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1999: 263-292.
61. Azmitia EC. Serotoninergic chemoreceptive neurons: a search, for a shared function. Mol Interv 2004; 4(1): 18-21.
62. Sassone-Corsi P. Circadian rhythmicity and aging: the molecular basis of oscillatory gene expression. In: Chanson P, Epelbaum J, Lamberts S, Christen Y, eds. Endocrine Aspects of Successful Aging: Genes, Hormones and Lifestyles. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2004: 207-216.
63. Wise PM, Dubal DB, Rau SW, et al. Are estrogens protective or risk factors in brain injury and neurodegeneration? Reevaulation after the Women’s health initiative. Endocr Rev 2005; 26(3): 308-312.
64. Maletta G. Pharmacotherapy in the elderly. In: Agronin M, Maletta G, eds. Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 199-220.
65. D’esposito MT. Cognitive aging: new answers to old questions. Curr Biol 1999; 9: R939-R941.
66. Clark RE, Squire LR. Classical conditioning in brain systems: the role of awareness. Science 1998; 280(5360): 77-81.
67. AndersonND, Craik FIM.Memory in the aging brain. In: Tulving E, Craik FIM, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Memory. New York: Oxford Press, 2000: 411-426.
68. Park DC, Schwarz N, eds. Cognitive Aging: A Primer. Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 1999.
69. Petersen R. Conceptual overview. In: Petersen RC, ed. Mild Cognitive Impairment: Aging to Alzheimer’s disease. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003: 1-14.
70. Hodges JR. Memory in the dementias. In: Tulving E, Craik FIM, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Memory. New York: Oxford Press, 2000: 441-464.
71. Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Dixon RA, Small BJ. Memory Change in the Aged. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
72. Hasher L, Quig MB, May CP. Inhibitory control over no-longerrelevant information: adult age differences. Mem Cognit 1997; 25(3): 286-295.
73. Luszcz MA, Bryan J. Toward understanding age-related memory losses in late adulthood. Gerontology 1999; 45(1): 2-9.
74. Hasher L, Zachs RT, Rahhal TA. Timing, instructions, and inhibitory control: some missing factors in the age and memory debate. Gerontology 1999; 45(6): 355-357.
75. Gallagher M, Colombo PJ. Ageing: the cholinergic hypothesis of cognitive decline. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995; 5(2): 161-168.
76. Rani PJ, Panneerselvam C. Protective efficacy of L-carnitine on acetylcholinesterase activity in the aged brain. J Gerontol 2001; 56(3): B140-B141.
77. Woodruff-Pak DS, Vogel RWIII, Wenk GL. Galantamine: effect on nicotinic receptor binding, acetylcholinesterase inhibition and learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2001; 98(4): 2089-2094.
78. Blesa R. Galantamine: therapeutic effects beyond cognition. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2000; (suppl 1): 28-34.
79. Michael D, Martin KC, Seger R, et al. Repeated pulses of serotonin required for long-term facilitation activate mitogen-activated protein kinase in sensory neurons of Aplysia. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(4): 1864-1869.
80. Shimizu E, Tang YP, Rampon C, et al. NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic reinforcement as a crucial process for memory consolidation. Science 2000; 290(5494): 1170-1174.
81. Reisberg B, Doody R, Stoffler A, et al. Memantine in moderate to severe Alzheimer’s Disease. N Engl J Med 2003; 348(4): 1333-1341.
82. Lydiard RB, Brawman-Mintzer O, Ballenger JC. Recent developments in the psychopharmacology of anxiety disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol 1996; 64(4): 660-668.
83. Liddle RA. Cholecystokinin cells. Annu Rev Physiol 1997; 59: 221-242.
84. Conner JM, Darracq MA, Roberts J, et al. Nontropic actions of neurotrophins: subcortical nerve growth factor gene delivery reverses age-related degeneration of primate cortical cholinergic innervation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98(4): 1941-1946.
85. Martinez-Serrano A, Fischer W, Soderstrom S, et al. Long-term functional recovery from age-induced spatial memory impairments by nerve growth factor gene transfer to the rat basal forebrain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93(13): 6355-6360.
86. Neeper SA, Gomez-Pinilla F, Choi J, et al. Physical activity increases mRNA for brain-derived neurotropic factor and nerve growth factor in rat brain. Brain Res 1996; 726(1-2): 49-56.
87. Ickes BR, Pham TM, Sanders LA, et al. Long-term environmental enrichment leads to regional increases in neurotrophin levels in rat brain. Exp Neurol 2000; 164(1): 45-52.
88. Bailey CH, Bartsch D, Kandel ER. Toward a molecular definition of long-term memory storage. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996; 93(24): 13445-13452.
89. Margolin R. Neuroimaging in the geriatric patient. In: Argonin M, Maletta G, eds. Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Baltimore: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 93-118.
90. Grady CL, Craik FI. Changes in memory processing with age. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2000; 10(2): 224-231.
91. Vernadakis A, Roots BI. Neuron-Glia interrelations during phylogeny: plasticity and regeneration. Totowa: Humana Press, 1995.
92. Helmuth L. Glia tell neurons to build synapses. Science 2001; 291(5504): 569-570.
93. Ullian EM, Sapperstein SK, Christopherson KS, et al. Control of synapse number by glia. Science 2001; 291(5504): 657-661.
94. Higashigawa K, Seo A, Sheth N, et al. Effects of estrogens and thyroid hormone on development and aging of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. In: De Vellis JS, ed. Neuroglia in the Aging Brain. Totowa: Humana Press, 2002: 245-259.
95. Pappas G, Queen S, Hadden W, et al. The increasing disparity in mortality between socioeconomic groups in the United States, 1960 and 1986. N Engl J Med 1993; 329(2): 103-109.
96. Guralnik JM, Land KC, Blazer D, et al. Educational status and active life expectancy among older blacks and whites. N Engl J Med 1993; 329(2): 110-116.
97. Katzman R. Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 1993; 43(1): 13-20.
98. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, et al. Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer’s Disease. J Am Med Assoc 1994; 271(13): 1004-1110.
99. Snowdon D. Aging with Grace. New York: Bantam Books, 2001.
100. Kemper S, Greiner LH, Marquis JG, et al. Language decline across the life span: findings from the nun study. Psychology and Aging 2001; 16(2): 227-239.
101. Timiras PS. Education, homeostasis and longevity. Exp Gerontol 1995; 30(3-4): 189-198.
102. Jacobs B, Schall M, Scheibel A. A quantitative dendritic analysis of Wernicke’s area in humans: II. Gender, hemispheric and environmental factors. J Comp Neurol 1993; 327(1): 97-111.
103. Swaab DF. Brain aging and Alzheimer’s disease, “wear and tear” vs. “use it or lose it”. Neurobiol Aging 1991; 12(4): 317-324.
104. Trzepac P, Meagher D, Wise M. Neuropsychiatric aspects of delirium. In: Yudofsky S, Hales R, eds. American Psychiatric Textbook of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 4th ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, 2002: 525-564.
105. Sachs-Ericsson N, Blazer DG. Depression and anxiety associated with dementia. In: Agronin ME, Maletta GJ, eds. Principles and Practice Geriatric Psychiatry. New York: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 591-604.
106. Woodruff-Pak DS. The Neuropsychology of Aging. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
107. Manton KG, Gu X. Changes in the prevalence of chronic disability in the United States black and nonblack population above age 65 from 1982 to 1999. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98(11): 6354-6359.
108. Lee VM. Disruption of the cytoskeleton in Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1995; 5(5): 663-668.
109. Wild-Bode C, Yamazaki T, Capell A, et al. Intracellular generation and accumulation of amyloid b-peptide terminating at amino acid 42. J Biol Chem 1997; 272(26): 16085-10688.
110. Frautschy SA, Hu W, Kim P, et al. Phenolic anti-inflammatory antioxidant reversal of Aβ-induced cognitive deficits and neuropathology. Neurobiol Aging 2001; 22(6): 993-1005.
111. McGeer PL, Schulzer M, McGeer EG. Arthritis and antiinflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology 1997; 47(2): 425-432.
112. Hy L, Keller D. Prevalence of AD among whites: a summary by levels of severity. Neurology 2000; 55(2): 198-204.
113. Knopman D, DeKosky S, Cummings J, et al. Practice parameter: diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards of Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2001; 56(9): 1143-1153.
114. Prusiner SB. Novel proteinaceous infectious particles cause scrapie. Science 1982; 216(4542): 136-144.
115. Prusiner SB. Shattuck lecture-neurodegenerative diseases and prions. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(20): 1516-1526.
116. Scott MR, Supattapone S, Nguyen HO, et al. Transgenic models of prion disease. Arch Virol 2000; (suppl)16: 113-124.
117. Hegde RS, Tremblay P, Groth D, et al. Transmissible and genetic prion diseases share a common pathway of neurodegeneration. Nature 1999; 402(6763): 822-826.
118. Knopman D. Alzheimer’s disease. In: Agronin M, Maletta G, eds. Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Baltimore: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 284-300.
119. Atamna H, Frey WH II. A role for heme in Alzheimer’s disease: heme binds amyloid b and has altered metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004; 101(30): 11153-11158.
120. Bush AI, Pettingell WH, Multhaup G, et al. Rapid induction of Alzheimer A beta amyloid formation by zinc. Science 1994; 265(5177): 1464-1467.
121. Mesco ER, Kachen C, Timiras PS. Effects of aluminum on tau protein in human neuroblastoma cells. Mol Chem Neuropathol 1991; 14(3): 199-212.
122. Sherrard DJ. Aluminum-much ado about something. N Engl J Med 1991; 324(8): 558-559.
123. Kirkpatrick LL, Brady CT. Cytoskeleton of neurons and glia. In: Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Fisher SK, Uhler MD, eds. Basic Neurochemistry. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998: 155-174.
124. Selkoe DJ, Lansbury PJ. Biochemistry of Alzheimer’s and prion diseases. In: Siegel GJ, Agranoff BW, Albers RW, Fisher SK, Uhler MD, eds. Basic Neurochemistry. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1998: 949-970.
125. Nukina N, Kosik KS, Selkoe DJ. The monoclonal antibody, Alz 50 recognizes tau protein in Alzheimer’s disease brain. Neurosci Lett 1988; 87(3): 240-246.
126. Aisen P, Schafer K, Grundman M, et al. Effects of rofecoxib or naproxen vs placebo on Alzheimer’s disease progression: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 289(21): 2819-2826.
127. Schenk D, Barbour R, DunnW, et al. Immunization with amyloidbeta attenuates Alzheimer-disease-like pathology in the PDAPP mouse. Nature 1999; 400(6740): 173-177.
128. Lewis J, Dickson D, Lin W, et al. Enhanced neurofibrillary degeneration in transgenic mice expressing mutant tau and APP. Science 2001; 293(5534): 1487-1491.
129. Games D, Bard F, Grajeda H, et al. Prevention and reduction of AD-type pathology in PDAPP mice immunized with Aβ 1-42. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000; 920: 274-284.
130. Walsh DM, Klyubin I, Fadeeva JV, et al. Naturally secreted oligomers of amyloid beta protein potentially inhibit hippocampal long-term potentiation in vivo. Nature 2002; 416(6880): 483-484.
131. Kayed R, Head F, Thompson JL, et al. Common structure of soluble amyloid oligomers implies common mechanism of pathogenesis. Science 2003; 300(5618): 486-489.
132. Lu DC, Shaked GM, Masliah E, et al. Amyloid beta protein toxicity mediated by the formation of amyloid-beta protein precursor complexes. Ann Neurol 2003; 54(6): 781-789.
133. Plant LD, Boyle JP, Smith IF, et al. The production of amyloid beta peptide is a critical requirement for the viability of central neurons. J Neurosci 2003; 23(13): 5531-5535.
134. Lendon CL, Ashall F, Goate AM. Exploring the etiology of Alzheimer Disease using molecular genetics. J Am Med Assoc 1997; 277(10): 825-831.
135. Duff K, Eckman C, Zehr C, et al. Increased amyloid Aβ 42(43) in brains of mice expressing mutant presenilin 1. Nature 1996; 383(6602): 710-713.
136. Borchelt DR, Thinakaran G, Eckman CB, et al. Familial Alzheimer’s Disease-linked presenilin 1 variants elevate Aβ 1-42/1-40 ratio in vitro and in vivo. Neuron 1996; 17(5): 1005-1013.
137. Lopera F, Ardilla A, Martinez A, et al. Clinical features of earlyonset Alzheimer Disease in a large kindred with an E280A presenilin-1 mutation. JAMA 1997; 277(10): 793-799.
138. Slooter AJ, Tang MX, van Duijn CM, et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 and the risk of dementia with stroke. JAMA 1997; 277(10): 818-821.
139. Evans DA, Beckett LA, Field TS, et al. Apolipoprotein E epsilon4 and incidence of Alzheimer disease in a community population of older persons. JAMA 1997; 277(10): 822-824.
140. Ertekin-Taner N, Graff-Radford N, Younkin LH, et al. Linkage of plasma Aβ 42 to a quantitative locus on chromosome 10 in lateonset Alzheimer’s disease pedigrees. Science 2000; 290(5500): 2303-2304.
141. Myers A, Holmans P, Marshall H, et al. Susceptibility locus for Alzheimer’s disease on chromosome 10. Science 2000; 290(5500): 2304-2305.
142. Helmuth L. A genome glossary. Science 2001; 291(5507): 1197.
143. Monien BH, Apostolova LG, Bitan G, Early diagnostics and therapeutics for Alzheimer’s disease-how early can we get there? Expert Rev Neurother 2006; 6(9): 1293-1306.
144. Nyenhuis DL, Gorelick PB. Vascular dementia: a contemporary review of epidemiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998; 46(11): 1437-1448.
145. Budinger TF. Brain imaging in normal and Alzheimer’s disease. In: Sternberg H, Timiras PS, eds. Studies of Aging. New York: Springer, 1999: 182-206.
146. Wilkinson D, Doody R, Helme R, et al. Donepezil in vascular dementia: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Neurology 2003; 61(4): 479-486.
147. McKeith I. Dementia with Lewy bodies. In: Agronin M, Maletta G, eds. Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Baltimore: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 311-318.
148. Kertesz A. Frontotemporal dementia. In: Agronin M, Maletta G, eds. Principles and Practice of Geriatric Psychiatry. Baltimore: Lippincot Williams & Wilkins, 2006: 319-332.
149. Chen XQ, Fawcett JR, Rahman YE, et al. Delivery of nerve growth factor to the brain via the olfactory pathway. J Alzheimers Dis 1998; 1(1)35-44.