Geographical ecology of the palms (Arecaceae): Determinants of diversity and distributions across spatial scales

Annals of Botany

Volumn 108, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 1391-1416

  Eiserhardt, Wolf L ^a   Svenning, Jens Christian ^a   Kissling, W Daniel ^a   Balslev, Henrik ^a  

^a AARHUS UNIVERSITY   (Denmark)

Author keywords

Arecaceae; biotic interactions; climate; dispersal limitation; geographic ecology; hydrology; Palmae; soil; spatial scale; species distributions; species richness; topography

Indexed keywords

BIOTIC FACTOR; EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS; FUTURE PROSPECT; HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM; MONOCOTYLEDON; SPECIES DIVERSITY; SPECIES RICHNESS; TOPOGRAPHY; VEGETATION STRUCTURE;

ARECACEAE; BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEM; GEOGRAPHY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ARECACEAE; BIODIVERSITY; ECOSYSTEM; GEOGRAPHY;

ARECACEAE;

EID: 81855190632     PISSN: 03057364     EISSN: 10958290     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcr146     Document Type: Review

References (249)

1. Aguirre A, Dirzo R. 2008. Effects of fragmentation on pollinator abundance and fruit set of an abundant understory palm in a Mexican tropical forest. Biological Conservation 141: 375-384.
2. Álvarez-Loayza P, White JE Jr, Torres MS, et al. 2011. Light converts endosymbiotic fungus to pathogen, influencing seedling survival and niche-space filling of a common tropical tree, Iriartea deltoidea. PLoS ONE 6: E16386. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016386.
3. de Almeida LB, Galetti M. 2007. Seed dispersal and spatial distribution of Attalea geraensis (Arecaceae) in two remnants of Cerrado in Southeastern Brazil. Acta Oecologica, 32: 180-187. (Pubitemid 47391393)
4. Andersen KM, Turner BL, Dalling JW. 2010. Soil-based habitat partitioning in understorey palms in lower montane tropical forests. Journal of Biogeography 37: 278-292.
5. Andrew ME, Ustin SL. 2009. Habitat suitability modelling of an invasive plant with advanced remote sensing data. Diversity and Distributions 15: 627-640.
6. Araujo MB, Luoto M. 2007. The importance of biotic interactions for modelling species distributions under climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16: 743-753. (Pubitemid 47602777)
7. Arroyo-Rodríguez V, Aguirre A, Benitez-Malvido J, Mandujano S. 2007.Impact of rain forest fragmentation on the population size of a structurally important palm species: Astrocaryum mexicanum at Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Biological Conservation 138: 198-206. (Pubitemid 46908692)
8. Austin MP, Ashton PS, Greig-Smith P. 1972. The application of quantitative methods to vegetation survey. III. A re-examination of rain forest data from Brunei. Journal of Ecology 60: 305-324.
9. Bachman S, Baker WJ, Brummitt N, Dransfield J, Moat J. 2004.Elevational gradients, area and tropical island diversity: An example from the palms of New Guinea. Ecography 27: 299-310. (Pubitemid 38826105)
10. Baez S, Balslev H. 2007. Edge effects on palm diversity in rain forest fragments in western Ecuador. Biodiversity and Conservation 16: 2201-2211. (Pubitemid 46835494)
11. Baker WJ, Couvreur TLP. 2011. Biogeography and distribution patterns of Southeast Asian palms. In: Gower D, Johnson K, Richardson JE, Rosen B, Rüber L, Williams S. eds. Biotic evolution and environmental change in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (in press).
12. Balick MJ. 1988. The palm - tree of life: Biology, utilization and conservation. New York: The New York Botanical Garden.
13. Balslev H, Barfod AS. 1987. Ecuadorean palms - an overview. Opera Botanica 92: 1-21.
14. Balslev H, Luteyn JL, Ollgaard B, Holm-Nielsen LB. 1987. Composition and structure of adjacent unflooded and floodplain forest in Amazonian Ecuador. Opera Botanica 92: 37-57.
15. Balslev H, Eiserhardt W, Kristiansen T, Pedersen D, Grandez C. 2010.Palms and palm communities in the upper Ucayali river valley - a little known region in the Amazon basin. PALMS 54: 57-72.
16. Barfod AS, Trenel P, Borchsenius F. 2010. Drivers of diversification in the vegetable ivory palms (Arecaceae: Ceroxyloideae, Phytelepheae) - vicariance or adaptive shifts in niche traits? In: Seberg O, Petersen G, Barfod AS, Davis JI. eds. Diversity, phylogeny, and evolution of the monocotyledons. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 225-243.
17. Barot S, Gignoux J. 2003. Neighbourhood analysis in the savanna palm Borassus aethiopum: Interplay of intraspecific competition and soil patchiness. Journal of Vegetation Science 14: 79-88. (Pubitemid 36573085)
18. Bawa KS. 1990. Plant-pollinator interactions in tropical rain-forests. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 21: 399-422.
19. Beck H. 2007. Synergistic impacts of ungulates and falling palm fronds on saplings in the Amazon. Journal of Tropical Ecology 23: 599-602. (Pubitemid 47580844)
20. Bell G. 2001. Neutral macroecology. Science 293: 2413-2418. (Pubitemid 32917317)
21. Bengtsson J, Fagerström T, Rydin H. 1994. Competition and coexistence in plant communities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9: 246-250.
22. Bjorholm S, Svenning JC, Skov F, Balslev H. 2005. Environmental and spatial controls of palm (Arecaceae) species richness across the Americas. Global Ecology and Biogeography 14: 423-429. (Pubitemid 41702199)
23. Bjorholm S, Svenning JC, Baker WJ, Skov F, Balslev H. 2006. Historical legacies in the geographical diversity patterns of New World palm (Arecaceae) subfamilies. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151: 113-125.
24. Bjorholm S, Svenning J-C, Skov F, Balslev H. 2008. To what extent does Tobler's 1st law of geography apply to macroecology? A case study using American palms (Arecaceae). BMC Ecology 8: 11. doi:10.1186/ 1472-6785-8-11.
25. Blach-Overgaard A, Svenning J-C, Balslev H. 2009. Climate change sensitivity of the African ivory nut palm, Hyphaene petersiana Klotzsch ex Mart. (Arecaceae) - a keystone species in SE Africa. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 8: 012014.
26. Blach-Overgaard A, Svenning JC, Dransfield J, Greve M, Balslev H. 2010.Determinants of palm species distributions across Africa: The relative roles of climate, non-climatic environmental factors, and spatial constraints. Ecography 33: 380-391.
27. Boll T, Svenning JC, Vormisto J, Normand S, Grandez C, Balslev H. 2005.Spatial distribution and environmental preferences of the piassaba palm Aphandra natalia (Arecaceae) along the Pastaza and Urituyacu rivers in Peru. Forest Ecology and Management 213: 175-183. (Pubitemid 40841395)
28. Borchsenius F. 1993. Flowering biology and insect visitation of three Ecuadorean Aiphanes species. Principes 37: 139-150.
29. Borchsenius F. 1997. Flowering biology of Geonoma irena and G. cuneata var. sodiroi (Arecaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 208: 187-196. (Pubitemid 28071442)
30. Borchsenius F, Skov F. 1997. Ecological amplitudes of Ecuadorian palms. Principes 41: 179-183.
31. Bradley DJ, Gilbert GS, Martiny JBH. 2008. Pathogens promote plant diversity through a compensatory response. Ecology Letters 11: 461-469. (Pubitemid 351499223)
32. Brancalion PHS, Gabriel VdA, Gómez JM. 2009. Do terrestrial tank bromeliads in Brazil create safe sites for palm establishment or act as natural traps for its dispersed seeds? Biotropica 41: 3-6.
33. Brancalion PHS, Rodrigues RR, Novembre ADLC, Gómez JM. 2011. Are we misinterpreting seed predation in palms? Biotropica 43: 12-14.
34. Brown JH. 1995. Macroecology. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
35. Brown JH, Maurer BA. 1989. Macroecology - The division of food and space among species on continents. Science 243: 1145-1150. (Pubitemid 19326079)
36. Buckley LB, Davies TJ, Ackerly DD, et al. 2010. Phylogeny, niche conservatism and the latitudinal diversity gradient in mammals. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 277: 2131-2138.
37. Buermann W, Saatchi S, Smith TB, et al. 2008. Predicting species distributions across the Amazonian and Andean regions using remote sensing data. Journal of Biogeography 35: 1160-1176. (Pubitemid 351841695)
38. Bush MB, De Oliveira PE, Colinvaux PA, Miller MC, Moreno JE. 2004.Amazonian paleoecological histories: one hill, three watersheds. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 214: 359-393. (Pubitemid 39455332)
39. Callaway RM, Walker LR. 1997. Competition and facilitation: A synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities. Ecology 78: 1958-1965.
40. Callaway RM, Brooker RW, Choler P, et al. 2002. Positive interactions among alpine plants increase with stress. Nature 417: 844-848. (Pubitemid 34670329)
41. Capers RS, Chazdon RL, Brenes AR, Alvarado BV. 2005. Successional dynamics of woody seedling communities in wet tropical secondary forests. Journal of Ecology 93: 1071-1084.
42. Carson WP, Schnitzer SA. 2008. Tropical forest community ecology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
43. Carson WP, Schnitzer SA. 2008. Tropical forest community ecology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Case TJ, Holt RD, McPeek MA, Keitt TH. 2005. The community context of species' borders: Ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Oikos 108: 28-46. (Pubitemid 40198890)
44. Cavender-Bares J, Kozak KH, Fine PVA, Kembel SW. 2009. The merging of community ecology and phylogenetic biology. Ecology Letters 12: 693-715.
45. Charles-Dominique P, Chave J, Dubois MA, De Granville JJ, Riera B, Vezzoli C. 2003. Colonization front of the understorey palm Astrocaryum sciophilum in a pristine rain forest of French Guiana. Global Ecology and Biogeography 12: 237-248.
46. Cintra R, Ximenes AdC, Gondim FR, Kropf MS. 2005. Forest spatial heterogeneity and palm richness, abundance and community composition in Terra Firme forest, Central Amazon. Revista Brasileira de Botânica 28: 75-84.
47. Clark DA, Clark DB, Sandoval R, Castro MV. 1995. Edaphic and human effects on landscape-scale distributions of tropical rain-forest palms. Ecology 76: 2581-2594. (Pubitemid 3013840)
48. Clinebell RR, Phillips OL, Gentry AH, Stark N, Zuuring H. 1995.Prediction of Neotropical tree and liana species richness from soil and climatic data. Biodiversity and Conservation 4: 56-90.
49. Coblentz DD, Riitters KH. 2004. Topographic controls on the regional-scale biodiversity of the south-western USA. Journal of Biogeography, 31: 1125-1138. (Pubitemid 38791322)
50. Condit R, Hubbell SP, Foster RB. 1996. Changes in tree species abundance in a Neotropical forest: Impact of climate change. Journal of Tropical Ecology 12: 231-256.
51. Condit R, Pitman N, Leigh EG, et al. 2002. Beta-diversity in tropical forest trees. Science 295: 666-669. (Pubitemid 34111822)
52. Connell JH. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs - high diversity of trees and corals is maintained only in a non-equilibrium state. Science 199: 1302-1310. (Pubitemid 8292500)
53. Corner EJH. 1966. The natural history of palms. London: Weiden Feld and Nicolson.
54. Costa FRC, Guillaumet JL, Lima AP, Pereira OS. 2009. Gradients within gradients: The mesoscale distribution patterns of palms in a central Amazonian forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 20: 69-78.
55. Cuenca A, Asmussen-Lange CB, Borchsenius F. 2008. A dated phylogeny of the palm tribe Chamaedoreeae supports Eocene dispersal between Africa, North and South America. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 46: 760-775. (Pubitemid 351215925)
56. Cunningham SA. 1995. Ecological constraints on fruit initiation by Calyptrogyne ghiesbreghtiana (Arecaceae): floral herbivory, pollen availability, and visitation by pollinating bats. American Journal of Botany 82: 1527-1536. (Pubitemid 3023150)
57. Cunningham SA. 1996. Pollen supply limits fruit initiation by a rain forest understorey palm. Journal of Ecology 84: 185-194.
58. Currie DJ, Mittelbach GG, Cornell HV, et al. 2004. Predictions and tests of climate-based hypotheses of broad-scale variation in taxonomic richness. Ecology Letters 7: 1121-1134. (Pubitemid 39588344)
59. Dalle SP, Lopez H, Diaz D, Legendre P, Potvin C. 2002. Spatial distribution and habitats of useful plants: An initial assessment for conservation on an indigenous territory, Panama. Biodiversity and Conservation 11: 637-667. (Pubitemid 34557222)
60. Dawson W, Mndolwa AS, Burslem DFRP, Hulme PE. 2008. Assessing the risks of plant invasions arising from collections in tropical botanical gardens. Biodiversity and Conservation 17: 1979-1995.
61. Denslow JS. 1987. Tropical rainforest gaps and tree species diversity. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 18: 421-451.
62. Diniz-Filho JAF, Bini LM, Rodriguez MA, Rangel TFLVB, Hawkins BA. 2007. Seeing the forest for the trees: partitioning ecological and phylogenetic components of Bergmann's rule in European Carnivora. Ecography 30: 598-608. (Pubitemid 47263439)
63. Dominy NJ, Svenning J-C, Li W-H. 2003. Historical contingency in the evolution of primate color vision. Journal of Human Evolution 44: 25-45. (Pubitemid 36333501)
64. Dominy NJ, Grubb PJ, Jackson RV, et al. 2008. In tropical lowland rain forests monocots have tougher leaves than dicots, and include a new kind of tough leaf. Annals of Botany 101: 1363-1377. (Pubitemid 351777013)
65. Donatti CI, Guimarães PR, Galetti M. 2009. Seed dispersal and predation in the endemic Atlantic rainforest palm Astrocaryum aculeatissimum across a gradient of seed disperser abundance. Ecological Research 24: 1187-1195.
66. Dracxler CM, Pires AS, Fernandez FAS. 2011. Invertebrate seed predators are not all the same: seed predation by Bruchine and Scolytine beetles affects palm recruitment in different ways. Biotropica 43: 8-11.
67. Dransfield J, Uhl NW, Asmussen CB, Baker WJ, Harley MM, Lewis CE. 2008. Genera Palmarum. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
68. Dynesius M, Jansson R. 2000. Evolutionary consequences of changes in species' geographical distributions driven by Milankovitch climate oscillations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 97: 9115-20. (Pubitemid 30626683)
69. Eiserhardt WL, Pintaud J.-C, Asmussen-Lange C, et al. 2011. Phylogeny and divergence times of Bactridinae (Arecaceae, Palmae) based on plastid and nuclear DNA sequences. Taxon 60: 485-498.
70. Fadini RF, Fleury M, Donatti CI, Galetti M. 2009. Effects of frugivore impoverishment and seed predators on the recruitment of a keystone palm. Acta Oecologica-International Journal of Ecology 35: 188-196.
71. Fine PVA, Mesones I, Coley PD. 2004. Herbivores promote habitat specialization by trees in Amazonian forests. Science 305: 663-665. (Pubitemid 39006753)
72. Fleischer-Dogley F, Kettle CJ, Edwards PJ, Ghazoul J, Määttänen K, Kaiser-Bunbury CN. 2011. Morphological and genetic differentiation in populations of the dispersal-limited coco de mer (Lodoicea maldivica): Implications for management and conservation. Diversity and Distributions 17: 235-243.
73. Fleury M, Galetti M. 2006. Forest fragment size and microhabitat effects on palm seed predation. Biological Conservation 131: 1-13. (Pubitemid 44304420)
74. Fragoso JMV. 1997. Tapir-generated seed shadows: scale-dependent patchiness in the Amazon rain forest. Journal of Ecology 85: 519-529. (Pubitemid 27398611)
75. Frangi JL, Lugo AE. 1998. A floodplain palm forest in the Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico five years after hurricane Hugo. Biotropica 30: 339-348. (Pubitemid 29167707)
76. Galetti M, Keuroghlian A, Hanada L, Morato MI. 2001. Frugivory and seed dispersal by the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) in southeast Brazil. Biotropica 33: 723-726. (Pubitemid 34134856)
77. Galetti M, Donatti CI, Pires AS, Guimarães PR, Jordano P. 2006. Seed survival and dispersal of an endemic Atlantic forest palm: The combined effects of defaunation and forest fragmentation. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151: 141-149.
78. Galetti M, Donatti CI, Pizo MA, Giacomini HC. 2008. Big fish are the best: seed dispersal of Bactris glaucescens by the pacu fish (Piaractus mesopotamicus) in the Pantanal, Brazil. Biotropica 40: 386-389. (Pubitemid 351594941)
79. Galetti M, Donatti CI, Steffler C, Genini J, Bovendorp RS, Fleury M. 2010. The role of seed mass on the caching decision by agoutis, Dasyprocta leporina (Rodentia: Agoutidae). Zoologia 27: 472-476.
80. Gaston KJ. 2009. Geographic range limits: Achieving synthesis. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276: 1395-1406.
81. Gatti MG, Campanello PI, Montti LF, Goldstein G. 2008. Frost resistance in the tropical palm Euterpe edulis and its pattern of distribution in the Atlantic Forest of Argentina. Forest Ecology and Management 256: 633-640.
82. Genini J, Galetti M, Morellato LPC. 2009. Fruiting phenology of palms and trees in an Atlantic rainforest land-bridge island. Flora 204: 131-145.
83. Gentry AH. 1981. Distributional patterns and an additional species of the Passiflora-Vitifolia complex: Amazonian species-diversity due to edaphically differentiated communities. Plant Systematics and Evolution 137: 95-105.
84. Gentry AH. 1988. Changes in plant community diversity and floristic composition on environmental and geographical gradients. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 75: 1-34.
85. Giombini MI, Bravo SP, Martinez MF. 2009. Seed dispersal of the palm Syagrus romanzoffiana by tapirs in the semi-deciduous Atlantic Forest of Argentina. Biotropica 41: 408-413.
86. Givnish TJ. 1999. On the causes of gradients in tropical tree diversity. Journal of Ecology 87: 193-210. (Pubitemid 29215990)
87. Gotelli NJ. 2000. Null model analysis of species co-occurrence patterns. Ecology 81: 2606-2621.
88. Govaerts R, Dransfield J. 2005. World checklist of palms. Richmond: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew.
89. Grace JB, Tilman D. 1990. Perspectives on plant competition. San Diego: Academic Press.
90. Graham MH. 2003. Confronting multicollinearity in ecological multiple regression. Ecology 84: 2809-2815. (Pubitemid 38261430)
91. Graham CH, Fine PVA. 2008. Phylogenetic beta diversity: linking ecological and evolutionary processes across space in time. Ecology Letters 11: 1265-1277.
92. Greenwood DR, Wing SL. 1995. Eocene continental climates and latitudinal temperature-gradients. Geology 23: 1044-1048. (Pubitemid 26459221)
93. Grubb PJ, Jackson RV, Barberis IM, et al. 2008. Monocot leaves are eaten less than dicot leaves in tropical lowland rain forests: Correlations with toughness and leaf presentation. Annals of Botany 101: 1379-1389. (Pubitemid 351780474)
94. Guimarães PR, Galetti M, Jordano P. 2008. Seed dispersal anachronisms: rethinking the fruits extinct megafauna ate. PLoS One 3: E1745. (Pubitemid 351903215)
95. Gunn BF. 2004. The phylogeny of the Cocoeae (Arecaceae) with emphasis on Cocos nucifera. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 91: 505-522. (Pubitemid 39415768)
96. Haffer J. 1969. Speciation in amazonian forest birds. Science 165: 131-137.
97. Hansen DM, Galetti M. 2009. The forgotten megafauna. Science 324: 42-43.
98. Harley MM. 2006. A summary of fossil records for Arecaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 151: 39-67.
99. Harvey PH, Pagel MD. 1991. The comparative method in evolutionary biology. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
100. Hawkins BA, Field R, Cornell HV, et al. 2003. Energy, water, and broadscale geographic patterns of species richness. Ecology 84: 3105-3117. (Pubitemid 38261402)
101. Henderson A. 1986. A review of pollination studies in the Palmae. Botanical Review 52: 221-259.
102. Henderson A. 2002. Evolution and ecology of palms. Bronx: The New York Botanical Garden Press.
103. Henderson A, Galeano G, Bernal R. 1995. Field guide to the palms of the Americas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
104. Herrera CM. 2002. Seed dispersal by vertebrates. In: Herrera CM, Pellmyr O. eds. Plant-animal interactions: An evolutionary approach. Malden: Blackwell Science, 185-208.
105. Herrera CM, Pellmyr O. 2002. Plant-animal interactions: An evolutionary approach. Malden: Blackwell Science.
106. Homeier J, Breckle S-W, Dalitz H, Leyers C, Ortiz R. 2002. Demography, spatial distribution, and growth of three arborescent palm species in a tropical premontane rain forest in Costa Rica. Ecotropica 8: 239-247.
107. Howe HF, Smallwood J. 1982. Ecology of seed dispersal. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 13: 201-228.
108. Hubbell SP. 2001. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
109. Humboldt A von, Bonpland A. 1805. Essai sur la géographie des plantes; accompagné d'un tableau physique des régions équinoxiales. Paris: Schoell et compagnie.
110. Jansen PA, Bohlman SA, Garzon-Lopez CX, Olff H, Muller-Landau HC, Wright SJ. 2008. Large-scale spatial variation in palm fruit abundance across a tropical moist forest estimated from high-resolution aerial photographs. Ecography 31: 33-42. (Pubitemid 351280977)
111. Janssen T, Bremer K. 2004. The age of major monocot groups inferred from 800 + rbcL sequences. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 146: 385-398. (Pubitemid 40033205)
112. Janzen DH. 1970. Herbivores and number of tree species in tropical forests. American Naturalist 104: 501-528.
113. Janzen DH. 1971. The fate of Scheelea rostrata fruits beneath the parent tree: predispersal attack by bruchids. Principes 15: 89-101.
114. Janzen DH, Martin PS. 1982. Neotropical anachronisms - The fruits the Gomphotheres ate. Science 215: 19-27.
115. John R, Dalling JW, Harms KE, et al. 2007. Soil nutrients influence spatial distributions of tropical tree species. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104: 864-869. (Pubitemid 46154702)
116. Jones CG, Lawton JH, Shachak M. 1994. Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos 69: 373-386.
117. Kahn F. 1986. Life forms of Amazonian palms in relation to forest structure and dynamics. Biotropica 18: 214-218.
118. Kahn F. 1987. The distribution of palms as a function of local topography in Amazonian Terra-Firme forests. Experientia 43: 251-259.
119. Kahn F, de Castro A. 1985. The palm community in a forest of central Amazonia, Brazil. Biotropica 17: 210-216.
120. Kahn F, de Granville JJ. 1992. Palms in forest ecosystems of Amazonia. Berlin, Springer-Verlag.
121. Kahn F, Mejia K. 1987. Notes on the biology, ecology, and use of a small Amazonian palm: Lepidocaryum tessmannii. Principes 31: 14-19.
122. Kahn F, Mejia K. 1990. Palm commuities in wetland forest ecosystems of Peruvian Amazonia. Forest Ecology and Management 33-4: 169-179.
123. Kahn F, Mejia K. 1991. The palm communities of two 'terra firme' forests in Peruvian Amazonia. Principes 35: 22-26.
124. Kerr JT, Packer L. 1997. Habitat heterogeneity as a determinant of mammal species richness in high-energy regions. Nature 385: 252-254.
125. Kessler M. 2000. Upslope-directed mass effect in palms along an Andean elevational gradient: A cause for high diversity at mid-elevations? Biotropica 32: 756-759. (Pubitemid 32119842)
126. Keuroghlian A, Eaton DP. 2009. Removal of palm fruits and ecosystem engineering in palm stands by white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu pecari) and other frugivores in an isolated Atlantic Forest fragment. Biodiversity and Conservation 18: 1733-1750.
127. Kissling WD, Rahbek C, Böhning-Gaese K. 2007. Food plant diversity as broad-scale determinant of avian frugivore richness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 274: 799-808. (Pubitemid 47056759)
128. Klinger R, Rejmánek M. 2010. A strong conditional mutualism limits and enhances seed dispersal and germination of a tropical palm. Oecologia 162: 951-963.
129. Kozak KH, Wiens JJ. 2010. Niche conservatism drives elevational diversity patterns in Appalachian salamanders. American Naturalist 176: 40-54.
130. Kreft H, Jetz W. 2007. Global patterns and determinants of vascular plant diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 104: 5925-5930. (Pubitemid 47175635)
131. Kreft H, Sommer JH, Barthlott W. 2006. The significance of geographic range size for spatial diversity patterns in Neotropical palms. Ecography 29: 21-30.
132. Kristiansen T, Svenning JC, Grandez C, Salo J, Balslev H. 2009. Commonness of Amazonian palm (Arecaceae) species: Cross-scale links and potential determinants. Acta Oecologica-International Journal of Ecology 35: 554-562.
133. Kristiansen T, Svenning JC, Pedersen D, Eiserhardt W, Grández C, Balslev H. 2011. Local and regional palm (Arecaceae) species richness patterns and their cross-scale determinants in the western Amazon. Journal of Ecology (in press). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01834.x.
134. Kühn I, Nobis MP, Durka W. 2009. Combining spatial and phylogenetic eigenvector filtering in trait analysis. Global Ecology and Biogeography 18: 745-758.
135. Laurance WF, Nascimento HEM, Laurance SG, et al. 2006. Rapid decay of tree-community composition in Amazonian forest fragments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 103: 19010-19014. (Pubitemid 350002819)
136. Leibold MA, Holyoak M, Mouquet N, et al. 2004. The metacommunity concept: A framework for multi-scale community ecology. Ecology Letters 7: 601-613. (Pubitemid 38847749)
137. Lenoir J, Gegout JC, Guisan A, et al. 2010. Cross-scale analysis of the region effect on vascular plant species diversity in southern and northern European mountain ranges. Plos One 5: E15734. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0015734.
138. Levin SA. 1992. The problem of pattern and scale in ecology. Ecology 73: 1943-1967. (Pubitemid 23399192)
139. Liddle DT, Brook BW, Matthews J, Taylor SM, Caley P. 2006. Threat and response: A decade of decline in a regionally endangered rainforest palm affected by fire and introduced animals. Biological Conservation 132: 362-375. (Pubitemid 44015693)
140. Lieberman D, Lieberman M, Peralta R, Hartshorn GS. 1996. Tropical forest structure and composition on a large-scale altitudinal gradient in Costa Rica. Journal of Ecology 84: 137-152.
141. Lomolino MV, Riddle BR, Whittaker RJ, Brown JH. 2010. Biogeography. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
142. Losos E. 1995. Habitat specificity of two palm species: Experimental transplantation in Amazonian successional forests. Ecology 76: 2595-2606. (Pubitemid 3013841)
143. MacArthur RH. 1972. Geographical ecology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
144. Manchester SR, Lehman TM, Wheeler EA. 2010. Fossil palms (Arecaceae, Coryphoideae) associated with juvenile herbivorous dinosaurs in the upper Cretaceous Aguja formation, Big Bend National Park, Texas. International Journal of Plant Sciences 171: 679-689.
145. Merriam CH. 1890. Results of a biological survey of the San Francisco Mountain region and the desert of the Little Colorado, Arizona. North American Fauna 3: 1-136.
146. Mittelbach GG, Schemske DW, Cornell HV, et al. 2007. Evolution and the latitudinal diversity gradient: speciation, extinction and biogeography. Ecology Letters 10: 315-331. (Pubitemid 46426874)
147. Montufar R, Pintaud JC. 2006. Variation in species composition, abundance and microhabitat preferences among western Amazonian terra firme palm communities. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151: 127-140.
148. Morley RJ. 2000. Origin and evolution of tropical rain forests. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
149. Morley RJ. 2003. Interplate dispersal paths for megathermal angiosperms. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 6: 5-20. (Pubitemid 36914521)
150. Norden N, Chazdon RL, Chao A, Jiang YH, Vilchez-Alvarado B. 2009.Resilience of tropical rain forests: Tree community reassembly in secondary forests. Ecology Letters 12: 385-394.
151. Normand S, Vormisto J, Svenning JC, Grandez C, Balslev H. 2006.Geographical and environmental controls of palm beta diversity in paleo-riverine terrace forests in Amazonian Peru. Plant Ecology 186: 161-176. (Pubitemid 44386257)
152. O'Brien EM. 1998. Water-energy dynamics, climate, and prediction of woody plant species richness: An interim general model. Journal of Biogeography 25: 379-398. (Pubitemid 28358365)
153. Otero-Arnaiz A, Oyama K. 2001. Reproductive phenology, seed-set and pollination in Chamaedorea alternans, an understorey dioecious palm in a rain forest in Mexico. Journal of Tropical Ecology 17: 745-754. (Pubitemid 33145697)
154. Pacheco MAW. 2001. Effects of flooding and herbivores on variation in recruitment of palms between habitats. Journal of Ecology 89: 358-366. (Pubitemid 32540373)
155. Palm C, Sanchez P, Ahamed S, Awiti A. 2007. Soils: A contemporary perspective. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 32: 99-129. (Pubitemid 350247526)
156. Pan AD, Jacobs BF, Dransfield J, Baker WJ. 2006. The fossil history of palms (Arecaceae) in Africa and new records from the Late Oligocene (28-27 Mya) of north-western Ethiopia. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151: 69-81.
157. Paul JR, Morton C, Taylor CM, Tonsor SJ. 2009. Evolutionary time for dispersal limits the extent but not the occupancy of species' potential ranges in the tropical plant genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae). American Naturalist 173: 188-199.
158. Pearson RG, Dawson TP. 2003. Predicting the impacts of climate change on the distribution of species: Are bioclimate envelope models useful? Global Ecology and Biogeography 12: 361-371.
159. Pellissier L, Pottier J, Vittoz P, Dubuis A, Guisan A. 2010. Spatial pattern of floral morphology: possible insight into the effects of pollinators on plant distributions. Oikos 119: 1805-1813.
160. Pennisi E. 2005. What determines species diversity. Science 309: 90-90.
161. Peters HA. 2003. Neighbour-regulated mortality: The influence of positive and negative density dependence on tree populations in species-rich tropical forests. Ecology Letters 6: 757-765. (Pubitemid 36941111)
162. Peters HA, Pauw A, Silman MR, Terborgh JW. 2004. Falling palm fronds structure Amazonian rainforest sapling communities. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 271: S367-S369. (Pubitemid 38998750)
163. Pinto SRR, Santos AMM, Tabarelli M. 2009. Seed predation by rodents and safe sites for large-seeded trees in a fragment of the Brazilian Atlantic forest. Brazilian Journal of Biology 69: 765-773.
164. Pitman NCA, Terborgh JW, Silman MR, et al. 2001. Dominance and distribution of tree species in upper Amazonian terra firme forests. Ecology 82: 2101-2117. (Pubitemid 32773855)
165. Poulsen AD, Tuomisto H, Balslev H. 2006. Edaphic and floristic variation within a 1-ha plot of lowland Amazonian rain forest. Biotropica 38: 468-478. (Pubitemid 43873533)
166. Prasad V, Stromberg CAE, Alimohammadian H, Sahni A. 2005. Dinosaur coprolites and the early evolution of grasses and grazers. Science 310: 1177-1180. (Pubitemid 41681742)
167. Qian H, Kissling WD. 2010. Spatial scale and cross-taxon congruence of terrestrial vertebrate and vascular plant species richness in China. Ecology 91: 1172-1183.
168. Quiroga-Castro VD, Roldan AI. 2001. The fate of Attalea phalerata (Palmae) seeds dispersed to a tapir latrine. Biotropica 33: 472-477. (Pubitemid 34290067)
169. Rahbek C. 2005. The role of spatial scale and the perception of large-scale species-richness patterns. Ecology Letters 8: 224-239. (Pubitemid 40218109)
170. Rapoport EH. 1982. Areography: geographical strategies of species. New York: Pergamon Press.
171. Ricklefs RE. 1977. Environmental heterogeneity and plant species-diversity: A hypothesis. American Naturalist 111: 376-381.
172. Ricklefs RE. 1987. Community diversity - relative roles of local and regional processes. Science 235: 167-171.
173. Ricklefs RE, Schluter D. 1993. Species diversity in ecological communities - historical and geographical perspectives. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
174. Ricklefs RE. 2010a. Evolutionary diversification, coevolution between populations and their antagonists, and the filling of niche space. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 107: 1265-1272.
175. Ricklefs RE. 2010b. Host-pathogen coevolution, secondary sympatry and species diversification. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 365: 1139-1147.
176. Roncal J, Borchsenius F, Asmussen-Lange CB, Balslev H. 2010.Divergence times in the tribe Geonomateae (Arecaceaea) coincide with tertiary geological events. In: Seberg O, Petersen G, Barfod AS, Davis JI. eds. Diversity, phylogeny, and evolution of the monocotyledons. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 245-265.
177. Roncal J, Blach-Overgaard A, Borchsenius F, Balslev H, Svenning JC. 2011. A dated phylogeny complements macroecological analysis to explain the diversity patterns in Geonoma (Arecaceae). Biotropica 43: 324-334.
178. Rull V. 2008. Speciation timing and Neotropical biodiversity: The Tertiary- Quaternary debate in the light of molecular phylogenetic evidence. Molecular Ecology 17: 2722-2729. (Pubitemid 351724949)
179. Ruokolainen K, Vormisto J. 2000. The most widespread Amazonian palms tend to be tall and habitat generalists. Basic and Applied Ecology 1: 97-1008
180. Salm R. 2005. The importance of forest disturbance for the recruitment of the large arborescent palm Attalea maripa in a seasonally-dry Amazonian forest. Biota Neotropica 5: 1.
181. Salm R, Jalles-Filho E, Schuck-Paim C. 2005. A model for the importance of large arborescent palms in the dynamics of seasonally-dry Amazonian forests. Biota Neotropica 5: 2.
182. Salm R, Salles NVd, Alonso WJ, Schuck-Paim C. 2007. Cross-scale determinants of palm species distribution. Acta Amazonica 37: 17-25. (Pubitemid 47426362)
183. Scariot A. 1999. Forest fragmentation effects on palm diversity in central Amazonia. Journal of Ecology 87: 66-76. (Pubitemid 29073166)
184. Scariot AO, Oliveira Filho AT, Lleras E. 1989. Species richness, density and distribution of palms in an Eastern Amazonian seasonally flooded forest. Principes 33: 172-179.
185. Schnitzer SA, Carson WP. 2001. Treefall gaps and the maintenance of species diversity in a tropical forest. Ecology 82: 913-919. (Pubitemid 32333441)
186. Sesnie SE, Finegan B, Gessler PE, Ramos Z. 2009. Landscape-scale environmental and floristic variation in Costa Rican old-growth rain forest remnants. Biotropica 41: 16-26.
187. Sezen UU, Chazdon RL, Holsinger KE. 2009. Proximity is not a proxy for parentage in an animal-dispersed Neotropical canopy palm. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276: 2037-2044.
188. Shmida A, Ellner S. 1984. Coexistence of plant-species with similar niches. Vegetatio 58: 29-55.
189. Siebert SF. 2000. Abundance and growth of Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. (Palmae) in response to light and ramet harvesting in five forest sites in Belize. Forest Ecology and Management 137: 83-90.
190. Siebert SF. 2005. The abundance and distribution of rattan over an elevation gradient in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management 210: 143-158. (Pubitemid 40588848)
191. Silman MR, Terborgh JW, Kiltie RA. 2003. Population regulation of a dominant-rain forest tree by a major seed-predator. Ecology 84: 431-438. (Pubitemid 36893080)
192. da Silva Matos D. 2000. Herbivore and plant demography: A case study in a fragment of semi-deciduous forest in Brazil. Journal of Tropical Ecology 16: 159-165. (Pubitemid 30105067)
193. Silvertown J, Dodd ME, Gowing DJG, Mountford JO. 1999.Hydrologically defined niches reveal a basis for species richness in plant communities. Nature 400: 61-63. (Pubitemid 29315109)
194. Sosnowska J, Balslev H. 2009. American palm-ethnomedicine: A meta-analysis. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5: 43.
195. Souza AF, Martins FR. 2002. Spatial distribution of an undergrowth palm in fragments of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. Plant Ecology 164, 141-155. (Pubitemid 36264228)
196. Souza AF, Martins FR. 2004. Microsite specialization and spatial distribution of Geonoma brevispatha, a clonal palm in south-eastern Brazil. Ecological Research 19: 521-532. (Pubitemid 39123467)
197. Stephens PR, Wiens JJ. 2009. Bridging the gap between community ecology and historical biogeography: niche conservatism and community structure in emydid turtles. Molecular Ecology 18: 4664-4679.
198. Stoll P, Bergius E. 2005. Pattern and process: Competition causes regular spacing of individuals within plant populations. Journal of Ecology 93: 395-403. (Pubitemid 40483102)
199. Stropp J, ter Steege H, Malhi Y, Atdn Rainfor. 2009. Disentangling regional and local tree diversity in the Amazon. Ecography 32: 46-54.
200. Sunderland TCH, Morakinyo T. 2002. Nypa fruticans, a weed in West Africa. Palms 46: 154-155.
201. Svenning JC. 1998. The effect of land-use on the local distribution of palm species in an Andean rain forest fragment in northwestern Ecuador. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 1529-1537.
202. Svenning JC. 1999a. Microhabitat specialization in a species-rich palm community in Amazonian Ecuador. Journal of Ecology 87: 55-65.
203. Svenning JC. 1999b. Recruitment of tall arborescent palms in the Yasuni National Park, Amazonian Ecuador: Are large treefall gaps important? Journal of Tropical Ecology 15: 355-366.
204. Svenning JC. 2000a. Growth strategies of clonal palms (Arecaceae) in a neotropical rainforest, Yasuni, Ecuador. Australian Journal of Botany 48: 167-178.
205. Svenning JC. 2000b. Small canopy gaps influence plant distributions in the rain forest understory. Biotropica 32: 252-261.
206. Svenning JC. 2001a. On the role of microenvironmental heterogeneity in the ecology and diversification of neotropical rain-forest palms (Arecaceae). Botanical Review 67: 1-53.
207. Svenning JC. 2001b. Environmental heterogeneity, recruitment limitation and the mesoscale distribution of palms in a tropical montane rain forest (Maquipucuna, Ecuador). Journal of Tropical Ecology 17: 97-113.
208. Svenning JC. 2002a. Crown illumination limits the population growth rate of a neotropical understorey palm (Geonoma macrostachys, Arecaceae). Plant Ecology 159: 185-199.
209. Svenning JC. 2002b. Non-native ornamental palms invade a secondary tropical forest in Panama. Palms 46: 81-86.
210. Svenning JC, Skov F. 2004. Limited filling of the potential range in European tree species. Ecology Letters 7: 565-573. (Pubitemid 38851780)
211. Svenning JC, Skov F. 2007. Ice age legacies in the geographical distribution of tree species richness in Europe. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16: 234-245.
212. Svenning JC, Wright SJ. 2005. Seed limitation in a Panamanian forest. Journal of Ecology 93: 853-862. (Pubitemid 43906552)
213. Svenning JC, Kinner DA, Stallard RF, Engelbrecht BMJ, Wright SJ. 2004. Ecological determinism in plant community structure across a tropical forest landscape. Ecology 85: 2526-2538. (Pubitemid 39348545)
214. Svenning JC, Borchsenius F, Bjorholm S, Balslev H. 2008a. High tropical net diversification drives the New World latitudinal gradient in palm (Arecaceae) species richness. Journal of Biogeography 35: 394-406. (Pubitemid 351248596)
215. Svenning JC, Normand S, Skov F. 2008b. Postglacial dispersal limitation of widespread forest plant species in nemoral Europe. Ecography 31: 316-326. (Pubitemid 351799692)
216. Svenning JC, Harlev D, Sorensen M, Balslev H. 2009. Topographic and spatial controls of palm species distributions in a montane rain forest, southern Ecuador. Biodiversity and Conservation 18: 219-228.
217. ter Steege H, Pitman NC, Phillips OL, et al. 2006. Continental-scale patterns of canopy tree composition and function across Amazonia. Nature 443: 444-447. (Pubitemid 44477279)
218. Terborgh J. 1986. Keystone plant resources in the tropical forest. In: Soule M. ed. Conservation biology: science of scarcity and diversity. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, 330-344.
219. Thompson S, Alvarez-Loayza P, Terborgh J, Katul G. 2010. The effects of plant pathogens on tree recruitment in the western Amazon under a projected future climate: A dynamical systems analysis. Journal of Ecology 98: 1434-1446.
220. Thomson NJ. 2005. The geographic mosaic of coevolution. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
221. Thomson NJ. 2005. The geographic mosaic of coevolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Tomlinson PB. 2006. The uniqueness of palms. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 151: 5-14.
222. de la Torre L, Calvo-Irabien LM, Salazar C, Balslev H, Borchsenius F. 2009. Contrasting palm species and use diversity in the Yucatan Peninsula and the Ecuadorian Amazon. Biodiversity and Conservation 18: 2837-2853.
223. Trénel P, Gustafsson MHG, Baker WJ, Asmussen-Lange CB, Dransfield J, Borchsenius F. 2007. Mid-Tertiary dispersal, not Gondwanan vicariance explains distribution patterns in the wax palm subfamily (Ceroxyloideae: Arecaceae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 45: 272-288. (Pubitemid 47385995)
224. Tripp EA, Dexter KG. 2006. Sabal minor (Arecaceae): A new northern record of palms in eastern North America. Castanea 71: 172-177. (Pubitemid 44349596)
225. Tuomisto H, Ruokolainen K. 2008. Analyzing or explaining beta diversity? Reply. Ecology, 89: 3244-3256.
226. Tuomisto H, Ruokolainen K, Kalliola R, Linna A, Danjoy W, Rodriguez Z. 1995. Dissecting Amazonian biodiversity. Science 269: 63-6.
227. Tuomisto H, Ruokolainen K, Yli-Halla M. 2003. Dispersal, environment, and floristic variation of western Amazonian forests. Science 299: 241-244. (Pubitemid 36125208)
228. Turnbull LA, Crawley MJ, Rees M. 2000. Are plant populations seed-limited? A review of seed sowing experiments. Oikos 88: 225-238. (Pubitemid 30118962)
229. Vamosi SM, Heard SB, Vamosi JC, Webb CO. 2009. Emerging patterns in the comparative analysis of phylogenetic community structure. Molecular Ecology 18: 572-592.
230. Vormisto J, Phillips OL, Ruokolainen K, Tuomisto H, Vasquez R. 2000. A comparison of fine-scale distribution patterns of four plant groups in an Amazonian rainforest. Ecography 23: 349-359. (Pubitemid 30416484)
231. Vormisto J, Svenning JC, Hall P, Balslev H. 2004a. Diversity and dominance in palm (Arecaceae) communities in terra firme forests in the western Amazon basin. Journal of Ecology 92: 577-588. (Pubitemid 39048148)
232. Vormisto J, Tuomisto H, Oksanen J. 2004b. Palm distribution patterns in Amazonian rainforests: what is the role of topographic variation? Journal of Vegetation Science 15: 485-494. (Pubitemid 38847783)
233. Walther GR, Gritti ES, Berger S, Hickler T, Tang ZY, Sykes MT. 2007.Palms tracking climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography 16: 801-809. (Pubitemid 47593561)
234. Wang YH. 2008. Palm community structure and land cover changes in the San Juan biological corridor, Costa Rica. Biotropica 40: 44-54.
235. Wang YH, Augspurger C. 2004. Dwarf palms and cyclanths strongly reduce Neotropical seedling recruitment. Oikos 107: 619-633. (Pubitemid 39520815)
236. Webb CO, Ackerly DD, McPeek MA, Donoghue MJ. 2002. Phylogenies and community ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33: 475-505. (Pubitemid 36035149)
237. Wehncke EV, Medellin XL, Ezcurra E. 2009. Patterns of frugivory, seed dispersal and predation of blue fan palms (Brahea armata) in oases of northern Baja California. Journal of Arid Environments 73: 773-783.
238. Whittaker RH. 1960. Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecology Monographs 30: 279-338.
239. Whittaker RH. 1975. Communities and ecosystems. New York: Macmillan.
240. Wiegand T, Kissling WD, Cipriotti PA, Aguiar MR. 2006. Extending point pattern analysis for objects of finite size and irregular shape. Journal of Ecology 94: 825-837.
241. Wiens JJ, Donoghue MJ. 2004. Historical biogeography, ecology and species richness. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19: 639-44. (Pubitemid 39471296)
242. Wiens JJ, Graham CH. 2005. Niche conservatism: Integrating evolution, ecology, and conservation biology. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics 36: 519-539. (Pubitemid 43068869)
243. Wiens JJ, Ackerly DD, Allen AP, et al. 2010. Niche conservatism as an emerging principle in ecology and conservation biology. Ecology Letters 13: 1310-1324.
244. Willis KJ, Whittaker RJ. 2002. Species diversity - scale matters. Science 295: 1245-1248. (Pubitemid 34157606)
245. Wing SL, Hickey LJ, Swisher CC. 1993. Implications of an exceptional fossil flora for late Cretaceous vegetation. Nature 363: 342-344. (Pubitemid 23392973)
246. Young HS, Raab TK, McCauley DJ, Briggs AA, Dirzo R. 2010. The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, impacts forest composition and soil characteristics at Palmyra Atoll, Central Pacific. Journal of Vegetation Science 21: 1058-1068.
247. Zambrana NYP, Byg A, Svenning JC, Moraes M, Grandez C, Balslev H. 2007. Diversity of palm uses in the western Amazon. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16: 2771-2787. (Pubitemid 47351639)
248. Zobel M. 1997. The relative of species pools in determining plant species richness: An alternative explanation of species coexistence? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12: 266-269.
249. Zona S, Henderson A. 1989. A review of animal mediated seed dispersal of palms. Selbyana 11: 6-21.