Psychiatric symptomatologies and disorders related to epilepsy and antiepileptic medications

Expert Opinion on Drug Safety

Volumn 10, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 913-934

  Hamed, Sherifa Ahmad ^a  

^a ASSIUT UNIVERSITY   (Egypt)

Author keywords

Antiepileptic drugs; Behavioral emotional or psychiatric comorbidities; Biopsychosocial approach; Epilepsy; Neurotransmitters; Psychosocial variables

Indexed keywords

AMITRIPTYLINE; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CITALOPRAM; DESIPRAMINE; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETIRACETAM; FELBAMATE; FLUOXETINE; FLUVOXAMINE; GABAPENTIN; IMIPRAMINE; LAMOTRIGINE; MIRTAZAPINE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; NEFAZODONE; NORTRIPTYLINE; PAROXETINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID; VENLAFAXINE; VIGABATRIN; ZONISAMIDE;

AGGRESSION; AGITATION; AMNESIA; ANXIETY; ATTENTION; ATTENTION DISTURBANCE; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMORBIDITY; CONCENTRATION LOSS; CONFUSION; DEPRESSION; DRUG MECHANISM; EMOTIONAL DISORDER; EPILEPSY; FATIGUE; HALLUCINATION; HOSTILITY; HUMAN; HYPERACTIVITY; HYPERKINESIA; INSOMNIA; INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT; IRRITABILITY; LANGUAGE DISABILITY; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL INSTABILITY; MOOD; MOTIVATION; NERVOUSNESS; OBSESSION; PARANOIA; PERSONALITY DISORDER; PSYCHOSIS; PSYCHOTHERAPY; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SEDATION; SEXUAL FUNCTION; SHORT TERM MEMORY; SIDE EFFECT; SLEEP DISORDER; STEREOTYPY; SUICIDAL IDEATION; SUICIDE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; THOUGHT DISORDER;

ANIMALS; ANTICONVULSANTS; CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; COMORBIDITY; DOUBLE-BLIND METHOD; EPILEPSY; HUMANS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS;

EID: 80054755773     PISSN: 14740338     EISSN: 1744764X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14740338.2011.588597     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. Hauser WA. Incidence and prevalence. In: Engel J, Pedley TA, editors, Epilepsy: a comprehensive textbook. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia; 1997. p. 47-57
2. Osuntokun BO. Epilepsy in the African continent. In: Peny JK, editor; Epilepsy: the eighth international symposium PP. Ravan Press, New York; 1977. p. 365-78
3. Shawki A. Etiological and clinical presentation of epilepsy in Upper Egypt. M.D. Thesis in Neurology. Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University; 1995
4. Engel J Jr. Update on surgical treatment of the epilepsies. Summary of the second international palm desert conference on the surgical treatment of the epilepsies (1992). Neurology 1993;43(8):1612-17 (Pubitemid 23230558)
5. Blanchet P, Frommer GP. Mood change preceding epileptic seizures. J Nerv Ment Dis 1986;174(8):471-6 (Pubitemid 16040139)
6. Biraben A, Taussig D, Thomas P, et al. Fear as the main feature of epileptic seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2001;70(2):186-91 (Pubitemid 32127855)
7. Kanner AM, Stagno S, Kotagal P. Postictal psychiatric events during prolonged video-electroencephalographic monitoring studies. Arch Neurol 1996;53(3):258-63
8. Kanemoto K, Kawasaki J, Mori E. Violence and epilepsy: a close relation between violence and postictal psychosis. Epilepsia 1999;40(1):107-9 (Pubitemid 29031761)
9. Kobau R, Gilliam F, Thurman DJ. Prevalence of self-reported epilepsy or seizure disorder and its associations with self-reported depression and anxiety: results from the 2004 HealthStyles Survey. Epilepsia 2006;47(11):1915-21 (Pubitemid 44730062)
10. Mula M. The clinical spectrum of bipolar symptoms in epilepsy: a critical reappraisal. Postgrad Med 2010;122(4):17-23
11. Beyenburg S, Mitchell AJ, Schmidt D, et al. Anxiety in patients with epilepsy: systematic review and suggestions for clinical management. Epilepsy Behav 2005;7(2):161-71 (Pubitemid 41149518)
12. Dongier S. Statistical study of clinical and electroencephalographic manifestations of 536 psychotic episodes occurring in 516 epileptics between clinical seizures. Epilepsia 1959;1:117-42
13. Ertekin BA, Kulaksizoglu IB, Ertekin E, et al. A comparative study of obsessive-compulsive disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy and idiopathic generalized epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2009;14(4):634-9
14. Koneski JA, Casella EB. Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder in people with epilepsy: diagnosis and implications to the treatment. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2010;68(1):107-14
15. Lopez-Rodriguez F, Altshuler L, Kay J, et al. Personality disorders among medically refractory epileptic patients. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999;11(4):464-9
16. van Elst LT, Woermann FG, Lemieux L, et al. Affective aggression in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, A quantitative MRI study of the amygdala. Brain 2000;123(Pt 2):234-43 (Pubitemid 30055148)
17. Christensen J, Vestergaard M, Mortensen PB, et al. Epilepsy and risk of suicide: a population-based case-control study. Lancet Neurol 2007;6(8):693-8 (Pubitemid 47058376)
18. Perrine K, Hermann BP, Meador KJ, et al. The relationship of neuropsychological functioning to quality of life in epilepsy. Arch Neurol 1995;52(10):997-1003
19. Mrabet H, Mrabet A, Zouari B, Ghachem R. Health-related quality of life of people with epilepsy compared with a general reference population: a Tunisian study. Epilepsia 2004;45(7):838-43 (Pubitemid 38890985)
20. Pennell PB, Thompson P. Gender-specific psychosocial impact of living with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2009;15(Suppl 1):S20-5
21. Engel J, Wilson C, Lopez-Rodriguez F. Limbic connectivity: anatomical substrates of behavioural disturbances in epilepsy. In: Trimble M, Schmitz B, editors, The neuropsychiatry of epilepsy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge; 2002. p. 18-37
22. Helmstaedter C. Behavioral aspects of frontal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2001;2(5):384-95 (Pubitemid 33585795)
23. Broicher S, Kuchukhidze G, Grunwald T, et al. Association between structural abnormalities and fMRI response in the amygdala in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Seizure 2010;19(7):426-31
24. Ketter TA, Post RM, Theodore WH. Positive and negative psychiatric effects of antiepileptic drugs in patients with seizure disorders. Neurology 1999;53(Suppl 2):S53-67 (Pubitemid 29442167)
25. Nadkarni S, Devinsky O. Psychotropic effects of antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsy Curr 2005;5(5):176-81
26. Mula M, Marotta AE, Monaco F. Epilepsy and bipolar disorders. Expert Rev Neurother 2010;10(1):13-23
27. Mazza M, Di Nicola M, Della Marca G, et al. Bipolar disorder and epilepsy: a bidirectional relation? Neurobiological underpinnings, current hypotheses, and future research directions. Neuroscientist 2007;13(4):392-404 (Pubitemid 47062982)
28. Dhir A. Novel discoveries in understanding the complexities of epilepsy and major depression. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2010;14(1):109-15
29. Kanner AM. Depression and epilepsy: a bidirectional relation? Epilepsia 2011;52(Suppl 1):21-7
30. Manchanda R, Freeland A, Schaefer B, et al. Auras, seizure focus, and psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 2000;13(1):13-19 (Pubitemid 30055097)
31. Alemayehu S, Bergey GK, Barry E, et al. Panic attacks as ictal manifestations of parietal lobe seizures. Epilepsia 1995;36(8):824-30
32. Kanner AM. Recognition of the various expressions of anxiety, psychosis and aggression in epilepsy. Epilepsia 2004;45(Suppl 2):22-7 (Pubitemid 38856387)
33. So NK, Savard G, Andermann F, et al. Acute postictal psychosis: a stereo EEG study. Epilepsia 1990;31(2):188-93 (Pubitemid 20115149)
34. Kanner AM, Trimble M, Schmitz B. Postictal affective episodes. Epilepsy Behav 2010;19(2):156-8
35. Ettinger A, Reed M, Cramer J. Depression and comorbidity in community-based patients with epilepsy or asthma. Neurology 2004;63(6):1008-14 (Pubitemid 39287908)
36. Mensah SA, Beavis JM, Thapar AK. The presence and clinical implications of depression in a community population of adults with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2006;8(1):213-19 (Pubitemid 43103850)
37. Weissman MM, Bland R, Joyce PR, et al. Sex differences in rates of depression: cross-national perspectives. J Affect Disord 1993;29(2-3):77-84 (Pubitemid 23334115)
38. Mendez MF, Cummings JL, Benson DF. Depression in epilepsy. Significance and phenomenology. Arch Neurol 1986;43(8):766-70 (Pubitemid 16034222)
39. Glosser G, Zwil AS, Glosser DS, et al. Psychiatric aspects of temporal lobe epilepsy before and after anterior temporal lobectomy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000;68(1):53-8 (Pubitemid 30248659)
40. Karouni M, Arulthas S, Larsson PG, et al. Psychiatric comorbidity in patients with epilepsy: a population-based study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2010;66(11):1151-60
41. Weissman MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ, et al. Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. JAMA 1996;276(4):293-9 (Pubitemid 26249533)
42. Ettinger AB, Reed ML, Goldberg JF, Hirschfeld RM. Prevalence of bipolar symptoms in epilepsy vs other chronic health disorders. Neurology 2005;65(4):535-40 (Pubitemid 41170711)
43. Blumer D. Dysphoric disorders and paroxysmal affects: recognition and treatment of epilepsy-related psychiatric disorders. Harv Rev Psychiatry 2000;8(1):8-17 (Pubitemid 30246612)
44. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51(1):8-19 (Pubitemid 24028993)
45. Fullana MA, Vilagut G, Rojas-Farreras S, et al. ESEMeD/MHEDEA 2000 investigators. Obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions in the general population: results from an epidemiological study in six European countries. J Affect Disord 2010;124(3):291-9
46. Allen IM. Forced thinking as part of the epileptic attack. N Z Med J 1952;51(282):86-95
47. Waxman SG, Geschwind N. The interictal behavior syndrome of temporal lobe epilepsy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976;32(12):1580-6
48. Geschwind N. Pathogenesis of behaviour change in temporal lobe epilepsy. In: Ward AA Jr, Penry JK, Purpura DP, editors; Epilepsy. Raven Press; New York 1983. p. 355-70
49. Kaufmann R, Goldberg-Stern H, Shuper A. Attention-deficit disorders and epilepsy in childhood: incidence, causative relations and treatment possibilities. J Child Neurol 2009;24(6):727-33
50. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T, et al. Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in adults: an overview. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48(1):9-20 (Pubitemid 30407145)
51. Swinkels WA, Duijsens IJ, Spinhoven P. Personality disorder traits in patients with epilepsy. Seizure 2003;12(8):587-94 (Pubitemid 37509055)
52. Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Cramer V. The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58(6):590-6 (Pubitemid 32523740)
53. Pizzi AM, Chapin JS, Tesar GE, Busch RM. Comparison of personality traits in patients with frontal and temporal lobe epilepsies. Epilepsy Behav 2009;15(2):225-9
54. Wilson SJ, Wrench JM, McIntosh AM, et al. Personality development in the context of intractable epilepsy. Arch Neurol 2009;66(1):68-72
55. de Araujo Filho GM, Jackowski AP, Lin K, et al. Personality traits related to juvenile myoclonic epilepsy: MRI reveals prefrontal abnormalities through a voxel-based morphometry study. Epilepsy Behav 2009;15(2):202-7
56. Tarulli A, Devinsky O, Alper K. Progression of postictal to interictal psychosis. Epilepsia 2001;42(11):1468-71 (Pubitemid 33140624)
57. Kumari V, Ffytche DH, Williams SCR, Gray JA. Personality predicts brain responses to cognitive demands. J Neurosci 2004;24:10636-41 (Pubitemid 39557636)
58. Jallon P. Mortality in patients with epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol 2004;17(2):141-6 (Pubitemid 38446455)
59. Christensen J, Vestergaard M, Mortensen PB, et al. Epilepsy and risk of suicide: a population-based case-control study. Lancet Neurol 2007;6(8):693-8 (Pubitemid 47058376)
60. Bell GS, Gaitatzis A, Bell CL, et al. Suicide in people with epilepsy: how great is the risk? Epilepsia 2009;50(8):1933-42
61. Bolton JM, Robinson J. Population-attributable fractions of Axis I and Axis II mental disorders for suicide attempts: findings from a representative sample of the adult, noninstitutionalized US population. Am J Public Health 2010;100(12):2473-80
62. Pompili M, Girardi P, Tatarelli R. Death from suicide versus mortality from epilepsy in the epilepsies: a meta-analysis. Epilepsy Behav 2006;9(4):641-8 (Pubitemid 44804263)
63. Jones JE, Hermann BP, Barry JJ, et al. Rates and risk factors for suicide, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts in chronic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2003;4(Suppl 3):S31-8 (Pubitemid 37428235)
64. Hesdorffer DC, Hauser WA, Olafsson E, et al. Depression and suicidal attempt as risk factor for incidental unprovoked seizures. Ann Neurol 2006;59(1):35-41 (Pubitemid 43042869)
65. Betts T. Psychiatric disorder in epilepsy. In: Duncan JS, Sisodiya SM, Smalls JE, editors, Epilepsy 2001. From science to patient. International League Against Epilepsy, Oxford; 2001. p. 257-60
66. Quiske A, Helmstaedter C, Lux S, Elger CE. Depression in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy is related to mesial temporal sclerosis. Epilepsy Res 2000;39(2):121-5 (Pubitemid 30089584)
67. Gilliam FG, Maton BM, Martin RC, et al. Hippocampal 1H-MRSI correlates with severity of depression symptoms in temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology 2007;68(5):364-8 (Pubitemid 46184212)
68. Swinkels WAM, Boas WVE, Kuyk J, et al. Inter-ictal psychopathology in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and extra-temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsia 2006;47(12):2092-103
69. Satishchandra P, Krishnamoorthy ES, van Elst LT. Mesial temporal structures and comorbid anxiety in refractory partial epilepsy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003;15(4):450-2 (Pubitemid 37444588)
70. Isaacs KL, Philbeck JW, Barr WB, et al. Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2004;5(4):569-74 (Pubitemid 39060714)
71. Amo C, Santiuste M, Maestu F, et al. Temporal lobe seizure recorded by magnetoencephalography: case report. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2004;62(3A):737-40 (Pubitemid 39295552)
72. Mendez MF, Engebrit B, Doss R, Grau R. The relationship of epileptic auras and psychological attributes. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996;8(3):287-92 (Pubitemid 26275740)
73. Mellers JD, Adachi N, Takei N, et al. SPET study of verbal fluency in schizophrenia and epilepsy. Br J Psychiatry 1998;173:69-74 (Pubitemid 28312206)
74. Perez MM, Trimble MR. Epileptic psychosis-diagnostic comparison with process schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1980;137:245-9 (Pubitemid 10048859)
75. Delgado-Escueta AV, Swartz BE, Walsh GO, et al. Frontal lobe seizures and epilepsies in neurobehavioral disorders. Adv Neurol 1991;55:317-240
76. Powell AL, Yudd A, Zee P, Mandelbaum DE. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder associated with orbitofrontal epilepsy in a father and a son. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 1997;10(2):151-4 (Pubitemid 27211972)
77. Miller K, Kłopotowski T, Rosciszewska D. Suicide attempts in epileptic patients during the years 1990-92. Analysis of patients in the Regional Poison Control Center in Sosnowiec. Psychiatr Pol 1997;31(6):667-75 (Pubitemid 28095768)
78. Nilsson L, Ahlbom A, Farahmand BY, et al. Risk factors for suicide in epilepsy: a case control study. Epilepsia 2002;43(6):644-51 (Pubitemid 34627725)
79. Kalinin VV, Polyanskiy DA. Gender differences in risk factors of suicidal behavior in epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2005;6(3):424-9 (Pubitemid 40468434)
80. Verrotti A, Cicconetti A, Scorrano B, et al. Epilepsy and suicide: pathogenesis, risk factors, and prevention. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2008;4(2):365-70 (Pubitemid 351711931)
81. Cornaggia CM, Beghi M, Provenzi M, Beghi E. Correlation between cognition and behavior in epilepsy. Epilepsia 2006;47(Suppl 2):34-3
82. Bell GS, Sander JW. Suicide and epilepsy. Curr Opin Neurol 2009;22(2):174-8
83. Hamed SA. Neuronal plasticity: implications in epilepsy progression and management. Drug Develop Res 2007;68(8):498-511 (Pubitemid 351312142)
84. Engel J, Shewmon DA. Impact of the kindling phenomenon on clinical epileptology. In: Morrell F, editor, Kindling and synaptic plasticity: the legancy of graham Goddard. Cambridge 1991. p. 195-210
85. Elst LT, Groffmann M, Ebert D, Schulze-Bonhage A. Amygdala volume loss in patients with dysphoric disorder of epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2009;16(1):105-12
86. Drevets WC. Functional neuroimaging studies of depression: the anatomy of melancholia. Annu Rev Med 1998;49:341-61 (Pubitemid 28197459)
87. Steriade M. Corticothalamic resonance, states of vigilance and mentation. Neuroscience 2000;101(2):243-76
88. Bremner JD, Narayan M, Anderson ER, et al. Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157(1):115-18
89. Richardson EJ, Griffith HR, Martin RC, et al. Structural and functional neuroimaging correlates of depression in temporal lobe epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2007;10(2):242-9 (Pubitemid 46432222)
90. Shih JJ, Weisend MP, Sanders JA, Lee RR. Magnetoencephalographic and magnetic resonance spectroscopy evidence of regional functional abnormality in mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. Brain Topogr 2011;23(4):368-74
91. Ryvlin P, Philippon B, Cinotti L, et al. Functional neuroimaging strategy in temporal lobe epilepsy: a comparative study of 18FDG-PET and 99mTc-HMPAO-SPECT. Ann Neurol 1992;31(6):650-6
92. Sah P, Faber ES, Lopez De Armentia M, Power J. The amygdaloid complex: Anatomy and physiology. Physiol Rev 2003;83(3):803-34 (Pubitemid 36828926)
93. Malizia AL. What do brain imaging studies tell us about anxiety disorders? J Psychopharmacol 1999;13(4):372-8 (Pubitemid 30055181)
94. Eron LD, Gruder CL. Some topics closely related to the study of abnormal behavior: aggression and fantasy. In: Reiss S, et al., editors, Abnormality: experimental and clinical approaches. Macmillan, New York; 1977. p. 579-638
95. Stuss DT, Levine B. Adult clinical neuropsychology: lessons from studies of the frontal lobes. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53:401-33
96. Doyle AE. Executive functions in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67(Suppl 8):21-6 (Pubitemid 44385603)
97. Zametkin A, Liotta W. The neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59(Suppl 7):17-23 (Pubitemid 28317218)
98. Jobe PC, Dailey JW, Wernicke JF. A noradrenergic and serotonergic hypothesis of the linkage between epilepsy and affective disorders. Crit Rev Neurobiol 1999;13(4):317-56
99. Lydiard RB. The role of GABA in anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64(Suppl 3):21-7 (Pubitemid 36389868)
100. Hasler G, Bonwetsch R, Giovacchini G, et al. 5-HTIA receptor binding in temporal lobe epilepsy patients with and without major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2007;62(11):1258-64 (Pubitemid 350060892)
101. Bortolato M, Solbrig MV. The price of seizure control: dynorphins in interictal and postictal psychosis. Psychiatry Res 2007;151(1-2):139-43 (Pubitemid 46634638)
102. Krause K, Deresl SH, Krause J. Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyper activity disorders, effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission tomography. Neurosci Lett 2000;285(2):107-10 (Pubitemid 30227631)
103. Bagdy G, Kecskemeti V, Riba P, Jakus R. Serotonin and epilepsy. J Neurochem 2007;100:857-73 (Pubitemid 46213913)
104. Richerson GB, Buchanan GF. The serotonin axis: shared mechanisms in seizures, depression, and SUDEP. Epilepsia 2011;52(Suppl 1):28-38
105. Forsgren L, Nystrom L. An incident case-referent study of epileptic seizures in adults. Epilepsy Res 1990;6(1):66-81 (Pubitemid 20172108)
106. Baron M. Genetic linkage and bipolar affective disorder: progress and pitfalls. Mol Psychiatry 1997;2(3):200-10 (Pubitemid 27217684)
107. Hamed SA, Mohamed KA, EL-taher AM, et al. The Sexual and reproductive health in men with generalized epilepsy: a multidisciplinary evaluation. Int J Impot Res 2006;18(3):287-92
108. Kuzniecky R, Ho S, Pan J. Modulation of cerebral GABA By topiramate, lamotrigine, and gabapentin in healthy adults. Neurology 2002;58(3):368-72 (Pubitemid 34150909)
109. Ried S, Mothersil IW. Forced normalization: the clinical neurologist's view. In: Trimble MR, Schmttz B, editors, Forced normalization and alternative psychoses of epilepsy. Wrightson Biomedical; 1998. p. 77-94
110. Tugendhaft P, Ansseau M, de Borchgrave V, et al. Guidelines for recognition and treatment of the psychoses associated with epilepsy. Acta Neurol Belg 2005;105(1):14-17 (Pubitemid 40542357)
111. Froscher W, Maier V, Laage M, et al. Folate deficiency, anticonvulsant drugs, and psychiatric morbidity. Clin Neuropharmacol 1995;18(2):165-82
112. Skarupski KA, Tangney C, Li H, et al. Longitudinal association of vitamin B-6, folate, and vitamin B-12 with depressive symptoms among older adults over time. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92(2):330-5
113. Yanai J, Fares F, Gavish M, et al. Neural and behavioral alterations after early exposure to phenobarbital. Neurotoxicology 1989;10(3):543-54 (Pubitemid 20084639)
114. Levinson DF, Devinsky O. Psychiatric adverse events during vigabatrin therapy. Neurology 2001;53(7):1503-11
115. Leppik IE, Gram L, Deaton R, Sommerville KW. Safety of tiagabine: summary of 53 trials. Epilepsy Res 1999;33(2-3):235-46 (Pubitemid 29143360)
116. Cramer JA, De Rue K, Devinsky O, et al. A systematic review of the behavioral effects of levetiracetam in adults with epilepsy, cognitive disorders, or an anxiety disorder during clinical trials. Epilepsy Behav 2003;4(2):124-32 (Pubitemid 37184583)
117. McConnell H, Snyder PJ, Duffy JD, et al. Neuropsychiatric side effects related to felbamate. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1996;8(3):341-6 (Pubitemid 26275748)
118. Park SP, Hwang YH, Lee HW, et al. Long-term cognitive and mood effects of zonisamide monotherapy in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Behav 2008;12(1):102-8
119. Mula M, Trimble MR, Lhatoo SD, Sander JW. Topiramate and psychiatric adverse events in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2003;44(5):659-63 (Pubitemid 36554633)
120. Smith DB, Mattson RH, Cramer JA, et al. Results of a nationwide Veterans Administration Cooperative Study comparing the efficacy and toxicity of carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin, and primidone. Epilepsia 1987;28(Suppl 3):S50-8 (Pubitemid 18021821)
121. Nowakowska E, Kus K, Czubak A, et al. Some behavioural effects of carbamazepine-comparison with haloperidol. J Physiol Pharmacol 2007;58(2):253-64 (Pubitemid 47026560)
122. Curran HV, Java R. Memory and psychomotor effects of oxcarbamazepine in healthy human volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1993;44(6):529-33 (Pubitemid 23197836)
123. Mecarelli O, Vicenzini E, Pulitano P, et al. Clinical, cognitive and neurophysiologic correlates of short-term treatment with carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine and levetiracetam in healthy volunteer. Ann Pharmacother 2004;38(11):1816-22 (Pubitemid 39425714)
124. Harden CL, Lazar LM, Pick LH, et al. A beneficial effect on mood in partial epilepsy patients treated with gabapentin. Epilepsia 1999;40(8):1129-34 (Pubitemid 29372629)
125. Meador KJ, Loring DW, Hulihan JF, et al. CAPSS-027 Study Group. Differential cognitive and behavioral effects of topiramate and valproate. Neurology 2003;40(9):1279-85
126. Roullet FI, Wollaston L, Decatanzaro D, Foster JA. Behavioral and molecular changes in the mouse in response to prenatal exposure to the anti-epileptic drug valproic acid. Neuroscience 2010;170(2):514-22
127. Xie X, Hagan RM. Cellular and molecular actions of lamotrigine: possible mechanisms of efficacy in bipolar disorder. Neuropsychobiology 1998;38(3):119-30 (Pubitemid 28479447)
128. Trimble MR, Schmitz B. Forced normalization and alternative psychoses of epilepsy. Petersfield, Wrightson Biomedical Publishing Ltd; UK: 1998
129. Grivas A, Schramm J, Kral T, et al. Surgical treatment for refractory temporal lobe epilepsy in the elderly: seizure outcome and neuropsychological sequels compared with a younger cohort. Epilepsia 2006;47(8):1364-72 (Pubitemid 44200418)
130. Gatzonis SD, Stamboulis E, Siafakas A, et al. Acute psychosis and EEG normalisation after vagus nerve stimulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000;69(2):278-9 (Pubitemid 30466047)
131. Olesen JB, Hansen PR, Erdal J, et al. Antiepileptic drugs and risk of suicide: a nationwide study. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2010;19(5):518-24
132. Kalinin VV, Polyanskiy DA. Gender differences in risk factors of suicidal behavior in epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2005;6(3):424-9 (Pubitemid 40468434)
133. US Food and Drug Administration. Antiepileptic drugs and suicidality. 23-5-2008 [online]. Available from: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/08/ briefing/2008-4372b1-01-FDA.pdf. [Accessed 30 Jun 2008]
134. Machado RA, Espinosa AG, Melendrez D, et al. Suicidal risk and suicide attempts in people treated with antiepileptic drugs for epilepsy. Seizure 2011;20(4):280-4
135. Bradford HF. Glutamate, GABA and epilepsy. Prog Neurobiol 1995;47(6):477-511
136. Fakhoury TA, Miller JM, Hammer AE, Vuong A. Effects of lamotrigine on mood in older adults with epilepsy and co-morbid depressive symptoms: an open-label, multicentre, prospective study. Drugs Aging 2008;25(11):955-62
137. Cavanna AE, Ali F, Rickards HE, McCorry D. Behavioral and cognitive effects of anti-epileptic drugs. Discov Med 2010;9(45):138-44
138. Genton P, Van Vleymen B. Piracetam and levetiracetam: close structural similarities but different pharmacological and clinical profiles. Epileptic Disord 2000;2(2):99-105 (Pubitemid 30625811)
139. Wolf P, Trimble MR. Biological antagonism and epileptic psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 1985;146:272-6 (Pubitemid 15128900)
140. Wolf P. Acute behavioural symptomatology at disappearance of epileptiform EEG abnormality: paradoxical or forced normalization. In: Smith D, Treiman D, Trimble MR, editors, Neurobehavioural problems in epilepsy. Raven Press, New York; 1991
141. Boylan LS, Flint LA, Labovitz DL, et al. Depression but not seizure frequency predicts quality of life in treatment-resistant epilepsy. Neurology 2004;62(2):258-61 (Pubitemid 38167135)
142. Goldstein MA, Harden CL, Radvin LD. Does anxiety in epilepsy patients decrease with increasing seizure frequency? Epilepsia 1999;40(Suppl8):60-1
143. Brodtkorb E, Mula M. Optimizing therapy of seizures in adult patients with psychiatric comorbidity. Neurology 2006;67(12 Suppl 4):S39-44 (Pubitemid 44967996)
144. Puzynski S. Anticonvulsants (carbamazepine, valproate, lamotrigine) on bipolar affective disorder. Psychiatr Pol 2002;36(6 Suppl):53-61 (Pubitemid 36119374)
145. Mishory A, Yaroslavsky Y, Bersudsky Y, Belmaker RH. Phenytoin as an antimanic anticonvulsant: a controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157(3):463-5 (Pubitemid 30145938)
146. Dodrill CB, Arnett JL, Deaton R, et al. Tiagabine versus phenytoin and carbamazepine as add-on therapies: effects on abilities, adjustment, and mood. Epilepsy Res 2000;42(2-3):123-32
147. Blumer D. Antidepressant and double antidepressant treatment for the affective disorder of epilepsy. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58(1):3-11 (Pubitemid 27089710)
148. Ojemann LM, Friel PN, Trejo WJ, Dudley DL. Effect of doxepin on seizure frequency in depressed epileptic patients. Neurology 1982;33(5):646-8
149. Robertson MM, Trimble MR. The treatment of depression in patients with epilepsy. A double-blind trial. J Affect Disord 1985;9(2):127-36 (Pubitemid 16240197)
150. Favale E, Rubino V, Mainardi P, et al. Anticonvulsant effect of fluoxetine in humans. Neurology 1995;45(10):1926-7 (Pubitemid 27122971)
151. Jabbari B, Bryan GE, Marsh EE, Gunderson CH. Incidence of seizures with tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants. Arch Neurol 1985;42(5):480-1 (Pubitemid 15113015)
152. Jick SS, Jick H, Knauss TA, Dean AD. Antidepressants and convulsions. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1992;12(4):241-5
153. Hawton K, Bergen H, Simkin S, et al. Toxicity of antidepressants: rates of suicide relative to prescribing and non-fatal overdose. Br J Psychiatry 2010;196(5):354-8
154. Phillips S, Brent J, Kulig K, et al. Fluoxetine versus tricyclic antidepressants: a prospective multicenter study of antidepressant drug overdoses. J Emerg Med 1997;15(4):439-45 (Pubitemid 27362602)
155. Harvey AT, Preskorn SH. Cytochrome P450 enzymes: interpretation of their interactions with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (part 1). J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996;16(4):273-85 (Pubitemid 26254878)
156. Dursun SM, Mathew VM, Reveley MA. Toxic serotonin syndrome after fluoxetine plus carbamazepine. Lancet 1993;342(8868):442-3 (Pubitemid 23236381)
157. McConnell H, Duncan D. Treatment of psychiatric comorbidity in epilepsy. In: McConnell H, Snyder PJ, editors Psychiatric comorbidity in epilepsy: basic mechanisms, diagnosis, and treatment. American Psychiatric Press; Washington, DC; 1998. p. 245-36
158. Rosenstein DL, Nelson JC, Jacobs SC. Seizures associated with antidepressants: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54(8):289-99 (Pubitemid 23273945)
159. Grimsley SR, Jann MW, Carter JG, et al. Increased carbamazepine plasma concentrations after fluoxetine coadministration. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991;50(1):10-15
160. Lucena MI, Blanco E, Corrales MA, Berthier ML. Interaction of fluoxetine and valproic acid. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155(4):575
161. Baghai TC, Moller HJ. Electroconvulsive therapy and its different indications. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2008;10(1):105-17 (Pubitemid 351542982)
162. Elger G, Hoppe C, Falkai P, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation is associated with mood improvements in epilepsy patients. Epilepsy Res 2000;42(2-3):203-10
163. Menza MA, Murray GB, Holmes VF, Rafuls WA. Controlled study of extrapyramidal reactions in the management of delirious, medically ill patients: intravenous haloperidol versus intravenous haloperidol plus benzodiazepines. Heart Lung 1988;17(3):238-41
164. Marder S. Antipsychotic medications. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, editors, Textbook of psychopharmacology. 2nd edition. American Psychiatric Press; Washington, DC; 1998. p. 309-22
165. Marks RC, Luchins DJ. Antipsychotic medications and seizures. Psychiatr Med 1991;9(1):37-51
166. Denney D, Stevens JR. Clozapine and seizures. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37(7):425-6
167. Shukla S, Mukherjee S, Decina P. Lithium in the treatment of bipolar disorders associated with epilepsy: an open study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1988;8(3):201-4
168. Ninan TN, Cole JO, Yonkers KA. Nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytics. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, editors, Textbook of Psychopharmacology. 2nd edition. American Psychiatric Press; Washington, DC; 1998. p. 287-300
169. Catalano G, Catalano MC, Hanley PF. Seizures associated with buspirone overdose: case report and literature review. Clin Neuropharmacol 1998;21(6):347-50 (Pubitemid 28543950)
170. Yudofsky SC, Silver JM, Hales RE. Treatment of agitation and aggression. In: Yudofsky SC, Hales RE, editors, The American psychiatric press textbook of neuropsychiatry. American Psychiatric Press; Washington, DC; 1997. p. 881-900
171. Raju SS, Gopalakrishna HN, Venkatadri N. Effect of propranolol and nifedipine on maximal electroshock-induced seizures in mice: individual and in combination. Pharmacol Res 1998;38(6):449-52 (Pubitemid 29002265)
172. van der Feltz-Cornelis CM, Aldenkamp AP. Effectiveness and safety of methylphenidate in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in patients with epilepsy: an open treatment trial. Epilepsy Behav 2006;8(3):659-62
173. Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, van der Meere J, et al. Epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: is methylphenidate safe and effective? J Pediatr 1997;130(4):670-4