Unveiling molecular events in the brain by noninvasive imaging

Neuroscientist

Volumn 17, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 539-559

  Klohs, Jan ^a   Rudin, Markus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Alzheimer's disease; bioluminescence imaging; magnetic resonance imaging; molecular imaging; near infrared fluorescence imaging; positron emission tomography; single photon emission computed tomography

Indexed keywords

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; BIOLUMINESCENCE; BLOOD VESSEL REACTIVITY; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; DIAGNOSTIC TEST ACCURACY STUDY; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GLYCOLYSIS; HUMAN; IN VIVO CULTURE; IN VIVO STUDY; MOLECULAR IMAGING; NEUROIMAGING; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PHARMACOLOGICAL PROCEDURES; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANIMALS; BRAIN; BRAIN MAPPING; HUMANS; NEUROIMAGING;

EID: 80054029716     PISSN: 10738584     EISSN: 10894098     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1073858410383433     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Aslund A, Sigurdson CJ, Klingstedt T, Grathwohl S, Bolmont T, Dickstein DL. Novel pentameric thiophene derivatives for in vitro and in vivo optical imaging of a plethora of protein aggregates in cerebral amyloidoses. Chem Biol. 2009 ; 4 (8). 673-84
2. Ayaz M, Boikov AS, Haacke EM, Kido DK, Kirsch WM. Imaging cerebral microbleeds using susceptibility weighted imaging: one step toward detecting vascular dementia. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2010 ; 31 (1). 142-8
3. Badea A, Johnson GA, Jankowsky JL. Remote sites of structural atrophy predict later amyloid formation in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neuroimage. 2010 ; 50 (2). 416-27
4. Baltes C, Radzwill N, Bosshard S, Marek D, Rudin M. Micro MRI of the mouse brain using a novel 400 MHz cryogenic quadrature RF probe. NMR Biomed. 2009 ; 22 (8). 834-42
5. Berger C, Gremlich HU, Schmidt P, Cannet C, Kneuer R, Hiestand P. In vivo monitoring the fate of Cy5.5-Tat labeled T lymphocytes by quantitative near-infrared fluorescence imaging during acute brain inflammation in a rat model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Immunol Methods. 2007 ; 323 (1). 65-77 (Pubitemid 46719198)
6. Bergstrom M, Grahnen A, Langstrom B. Positron emission tomography microdosing: a new concept with application in tracer and early clinical drug development. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003 ; 59 (5-6). 357-66 (Pubitemid 37214939)
7. Blennow K, de Leon M, Zetterberg H. Alzheimer's disease. Lancet. 2006 ; 368 (9533). 387-403 (Pubitemid 44108123)
8. Blin J, Baron JC, Dubois B, Crouzel C, Fiorelli M, Attar-Levy D. Loss of brain 5-HT2 receptors in Alzheimer's disease: in vivo assessment with positron emission tomography and [18F]setoperone. Brain. 1993 ; 116 (Pt 3). 497-510 (Pubitemid 23203635)
9. Bourayou R, Boeth H, Benav H, Betz T, Lindauer U, Nierhaus T. Fluorescence tomography technique optimized for noninvasive imaging of the mouse brain. J Biomed Opt. 2008 ; 13 (4). 041311
10. Bozzali M, Cherubini A. Diffusion tensor MRI to investigate dementias: a brief review. Mag Reson Imaging. 2007 2007 ; 25 (6). 969-77 (Pubitemid 47081370)
11. Braakman N, Matysik J, van Duinen SG, Verbeek F, Schliebs R, de Groot HJ. Longitudinal assessment of Alzheimer's beta-amyloid plaque development in transgenic mice monitored by in vivo magnetic resonance microimaging. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006 ; 24 (3). 530-6 (Pubitemid 44320553)
12. Braakman N, van Bucham MA, Schliebs R, de Groot HJB, Alia A. Recent advances in visualizing Alzheimer's plaques by magnetic resonance imaging. Cur Med Imaging Rev. 2009 ; 5 (1). 2-9
13. Burgermeister P, Calhoun ME, Winkler DT, Jucker M. Mechanisms of cerebrovascular amyloid deposition: lessons from mouse models. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000 ; 903: 307-16 (Pubitemid 30251571)
14. Cagnin A, Brooks DJ, Kennedy AM, Gunn RN, Myers R, Trukheimer FE. In vivo measurement of activated microglia in dementia. Lancet. 2001 ; 358 (9280). 461-7 (Pubitemid 32769854)
15. Chamberlain R, Reyes D, Curran GL, Marjanska M, Wengenack TM, Poduslo JF. Comparison of amyloid plaque contrast generated by T2-weighted, T2*-weighted, and susceptibility-weighted imaging methods in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Magn Reson Med. 2009 ; 61 (5). 1158-64
16. Contag CH, Stevenson DK. In vivo patterns of heme oxygenase-1 transcription. J Perinatol. 2001 ; 21 (Suppl 1). S119-24
17. Couillard-Despres S, Finkl R, Winner B, Ploetz S, Wiedermann D, Aigner R. In vivo optical imaging of neurogenesis: watching new neurons in the intact brain. Mol Imaging. 2008 ; 7 (1). 28-34
18. DeCarli C, Frisoni GB, Clark CM, Harvey D, Grundman M, Petersen RC. Qualitative estimates of medial temporal atrophy as a predictor of progression from mild cognitive impairment to dementia. Arch Neurol. 2007 ; 64 (1). 108-15 (Pubitemid 46072432)
19. Dhenain M, Privat N, Duyckaerts C, Jacobs RE. Senile plaques do not induce susceptibility effects in T2*-weighted MR microscopic images. NMR Biomed. 2002 ; 15 (3). 197-203 (Pubitemid 34520660)
20. Engler H, Forsberg A, Almkvist O, Blomquist G, Larsson E, Savitcheva I. Two-year follow-up of amyloid deposition in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Brain. 2006 ; 129 (Pt 11). 2856-66 (Pubitemid 44684508)
21. Foerster T. Zwischenmolekulare Energiewanderung und Fluoreszenz. Ann Physik. 1948 ; 437 (2). 55-75
22. Frangioni JV. Translating in vivo diagnostics into clinical reality. Nat Biotech. 2006 ; 24 (8). 909-13 (Pubitemid 44215378)
23. Frisoni GB, Fox NC, Jack CR, Scheltens P, Thompson PM. The clinical use of structural MRI in Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010 ; 6 (2). 67-77
24. Gambhir SS PET-molecular imaging and its biological applications. Phelps ME, ed. New York: Springer ; 2004: 125-216.
25. Goetz J, Ittner LM. Animal models of Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008 ; 9 (7). 532-44 (Pubitemid 351873467)
26. Goos JD, Kester MI, Barkhof F, Klein M, Blankenstein MA, Scheltens P. Patients with Alzheimer disease with multiple microbleeds: relation with cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers and cognition. Stroke. 2009 ; 40 (11). 3455-60
27. Gosche KM, Mortimer JA, Smith CD, Markesbery WR, Snowdon DA. Hippocampal volume as an index of Alzheimer neuropathology: findings from the Nun Study. Neurology. 2002 ; 58 (10). 1476-82 (Pubitemid 34552952)
28. Hanyu H, Asano T, Sakurai H, Imon Y, Iwamoto T, Takasaki M. Diffusion-weighted and magnetization transfer imaging of the corpus callosum in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci. 1999 ; 167 (1). 37-44 (Pubitemid 29401968)
29. Hanyu H, Sakurai H, Iwamoto T, Takasaki M, Shindo H, Abe K. Diffusion-weighted MR imaging of the hippocampus and temporal white matter in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Sci. 1998 ; 156 (2). 195-200 (Pubitemid 28186474)
30. Herholz K, Carter SF, Jones M. Positron emission tomography imaging in dementia. Br J Radiol. 2007 ; 80: S160-7
31. Herholz K, Weisenbach S, Kalbe E, Diederich NJ, Heiss WD. Cerebral acetylcholine esterase activity in mild cognitive impairment. Neuroreport. 2005 ; 16 (13). 1431-4 (Pubitemid 41805657)
32. Higuchi M, Iwata N, Matsuba Y, Sato K, Sasamoto K, Saido TC. 19F and 1H MRI dectection of amyloid ? plaques in vivo. Nat Neurosci. 2005 ; 8 (4). 527-33
33. Hintersteiner M, Enz A, Frey P, Jaton AL, Kinzy W, Kneuer R. In vivo detection of amyloid-? deposits by near-infrared imaging using an oxazine-derivative probe. Nat Biotech. 2005 ; 23 (5). 577-83 (Pubitemid 41724896)
34. Hyde D, de Kleine R, MacLaurin SA, Miller E, Brooks DH, Krucker T. Hybrid FMT-CT imaging of amyloid-beta plaques in a murine Alzheimer's disease model. Neuroimage. 2009 ; 44 (4). 1304-11
35. Iadecola C. Neurovascular regulation in the normal brain and in Alzheimer's disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2004 ; 5 (5). 347-60 (Pubitemid 38568496)
36. Ikonomovic MD, Klunk WE, Abrahamson EE, Mathis CA, Price JC, Tsopelas ND. Post-mortem correlates of in vivo PiB-PET amyloid imaging in a typical case of Alzheimer's disease.. 2008 ; 131 (Pt 6). 1630-45
37. Jack CR, Lowe VJ, Weigand SD, Wiste HJ, Senjem ML, Knopman DS. Serial PIB and MRI in normal, mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: implications for sequence of pathological events in Alzheimer's disease. Brain. 2009 ; 132 (Pt 5). 1355-65
38. Jagust WJ, Friedland RP, Budinger TF, Koss E, Ober B. Longitudinal studies of regional cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 1988 ; 38 (6). 909-12
39. Judenhofer MS, Wehrl HF, Newport DF, Catana C, Siegel SB, Becker M. Simultaneous PET-MRI: a new approach for functional and morphological imaging. Nat Med. 2008 ; 14 (4). 459-65 (Pubitemid 351499385)
40. Kadir A, Darreh-Shori T, Almkvist O, Wall A, Grut M, Strandberg B. PET imaging of the in vivo brain acetylcholinesterase activity and nicotine binding in galantamine-treated patients with AD. Neurobiol Aging. 2008 ; 29 (8). 1204-17 (Pubitemid 351822413)
41. Kemppainen N, Laine M, Laakso MP, Kaasinen V, Nagren K, Vahlberg T. Hippocampal dopamine D2 receptors correlate with memory functions in Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci. 2003 ; 18 (1). 149-54 (Pubitemid 36920856)
42. Kemppainen N, Ruottinen H, Nagren K, Rinne JO. PET shows that striatal dopamine D1 and D2 receptors are differentially affected in AD. Neurology. 2000 ; 55 (2). 205-9 (Pubitemid 30604619)
43. Kepe V, Barrio JR, Huang SC, Ercoli L, Siddarth P, Shoghi-Jadid K. Serotonin 1A receptors in the living brain of Alzheimer's disease patients. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 ; 103 (3). 702-7 (Pubitemid 43153089)
44. Kinoshita M, McDannold N, Jolesz FA, Hynynen K. Targeted delivery of antibodies through the blood-brain barrier by MRI-guided focused ultrasound. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2006 ; 340 (4). 1085-90 (Pubitemid 43083389)
45. Klohs J, Graefe M, Graf K, Steinbrink J, Dietrich T, Stibenz D. In vivo imaging of the inflammatory receptor CD40 after cerebral ischemia using a fluorescent antibody. Stroke. 2008a ; 39 (10). 2845-52
46. Klohs J, Steinbrink J, Bourayou R, Mueller S, Cordell R, Licha K. Near-infrared fluorescence imaging with fluorescently labeled albumin: a novel method for non-invasive optical imaging of blood-brain barrier impairment after focal cerebral ischemia in mice. J Neurosci Methods. 2009 ; 180 (1). 126-32
47. Klohs J, Wunder A, Licha K. Near-infrared fluorescent probes for imaging vascular pathophysiology. Basic Res Cardiol. 2008b ; 103 (2). 144-51 (Pubitemid 351356756)
48. Klunk WE, Lopresti BJ, Ikonomovic MD, Lefterov IM, Koldamova RP, Abrahamson EE. Binding of the positron emission tomography tracer Pittsburgh compound-B reflects the amount of amyloid-beta in Alzheimer's disease brain but not in transgenic mouse brain. J Neurosci. 2005 ; 25 (46). 10598-606 (Pubitemid 41681907)
49. Kuhl DE, Koeppe RA, Minoshima S, Snyder SE, Ficaro EP, Foster NL. In vivo mapping of cerebral acetylcholinesterase activity in aging and Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 1999 ; 52 (4). 691-9 (Pubitemid 29120169)
50. Lehmann S, Stiehl DP, Honer M, Dominietto M, Keist R, Kotevic I. Longitudinal and multimodal in vivo imaging of tumor hypoxia and its downstream molecular events. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 ; 106 (33). 14004-9
51. Lloyd B, Sczcerba D, Rudin M, Szekely G. A computational framework for modelling solid tumour growth. Philos Transact A Math Phys Eng Sci. 2008 ; 366 (1879). 3301-18
52. Massoud TF, Gambhir SS. Molecular imaging in living subjects: seeing fundamental biological processes in a new light. Genes Dev. 2003 ; 17 (5). 545-80 (Pubitemid 36307540)
53. Meadowcroft MD, Connor JR, Smith MB, Yang QX. MRI and histological analysis of beta-amyloid plaques in both human Alzheimer's disease and APP/PS1 transgenic mice. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2009 ; 29 (5). 997-1007
54. Mielke R, Herholz K, Grond M, Kessler J, Heiss WD. Clinical deterioration in probable Alzheimer's disease correlates with progressive metabolic impairment of association areas. Dementia. 1994 ; 5 (1). 36-41 (Pubitemid 24022692)
55. Mueggler T, Baltes C, Rudin M. Molecular neuroimaging in rodents: assessing receptor expression and function. Eur J Neurosci. 2009 ; 30 (10). 1860-9
56. Mueggler T, Baumann D, Rausch M, Rudin M. Bicuculline-induced brain activation in mice detected by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Magn Reson Med. 2001 ; 46 (2). 292-8 (Pubitemid 32703274)
57. Mueggler T, Baumann D, Rausch M, Staufenbiel M, Rudin M. Age-dependent impairment of somatosensory response in the amyloid precursor protein 23 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci. 2003 ; 23 (23). 8231-6 (Pubitemid 37129639)
58. Mueggler T, Razoux F, Russig H, Buehler A, Franklin TB, Baltes C. Mapping of CBV changes in 5-HT(1A) terminal fields by functional MRI in the mouse brain. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010 ;:
59. Mueggler T, Sturchler-Pierrat C, Baumann D, Rausch M, Staufenbiel M, Rudin M. Compromised hemodynamic response in amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice. J Neurosci. 2002 ; 22 (16). 7218-24 (Pubitemid 35379175)
60. Mueller SG, Weiner MW, Thal LJ, Petersen RC, Jack CR, Jagust W. Ways toward an early diagnosis in Alzheimer's disease: the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI). Alzeimers Dement. 2005 ; 1 (1). 55-66 (Pubitemid 43348857)
61. Mulder WJ, Strijkers GJ, Habets JW, Bleeker EJ, van der Schaft DW, Storm G. MR molecular imaging and fluorescence microscopy for identification of activated tumor endothelium using a bimodal lipidic nanoparticle. FASEB J. 2005 ; 19 (14). 2008-10 (Pubitemid 41759747)
62. Nordberg A, Lundqvist H, Hartvig P, Lilja A, Langstrom B. Kinetic analysis of regional (S)(-)11C-nicotine binding in normal and Alzheimer brains-in vivo assessment using positron emission tomography. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 1995 ; 9 (1). 21-7
63. Nordberg A, Rinne JO, Kadir A, Långström B. The use of PET in Alzheimer disease. Nat Rev Neurol. 2010 ; 6 (2). 78-87
64. Ntziachristos V, Tung CH, Bremer C, Weissleder R. Fluorescence molecular tomography resolves protease activity in vivo. Nat Med. 2002 ; 8: 757-60 (Pubitemid 34778731)
65. Pene F, Courtine E, Cariou A, Mira JP. Toward theragnostics. Crit Care Med 37 Suppl. 2009 ; 1: S50-8
66. Pepeu G, Giovannini MG. Cholinesterase inhibitors and beyond. Curr Alzheimer Res. 2009 ; 6 (2). 86-96
67. Phelps ME PET-molecular imaging and its biological applications. New York: Springer ; 2004 :
68. Piper S, Bahmani P, Klohs J, Bourayou R, Brunecker P, Müller J. Non-invasive surface-stripping for epifluorescence small animal imaging. Biomed Opt Express. :
69. Poduslo JF, Curran GL, Peterson JA, McCormick DJ, Fauq AH, Khan MA. Design and chemical synthesis of a magnetic resonance contrast agent with enhanced in vitro binding, high blood-brain barrier permeability, and in vivo targeting to Alzheimer's disease amyloid plaques. Biochem. 2004 ; 43 (20). 6064-75 (Pubitemid 38669474)
70. Pouyssegur J, Dayan F, Mazure NM. Hypoxia signalling in cancer and approaches to enforce tumour regression. Nature. 2006 ; 441 (7092). 437-43 (Pubitemid 44050138)
71. Princz-Kranz FL, Mueggler T, Knobloch M, Nitsch RM, Rudin M. Vascular response to acetazolamide decreases as a function of age in the arcAbeta mouse model of cerebral amyloidosis. Neurobiol Dis. 2010 ; 40 (1). 284-92
72. Ran C, Xu X, Raymond SB, Ferrara BJ, Neal K, Bacskai BJ. Design, synthesis, and testing of difluoroboron-derivatized curcumins as near-infrared probes for in vivo detection of amyloid-? deposits. J Am Chem Soc. 2009 ; 131 (42). 15257-61
73. Rausch M, Hiestand P, Baumann D, Cannet C, Rudin M. MRI-based monitoring of inflammation and tissue damage in acute and chronic relapsing EAE. Magn Reson Med. 2003 ; 50 (2). 309-14 (Pubitemid 36950850)
74. Raymond SB, Skoch J, Hills ID, Nesterov EE, Swager TM, Bacskai BJ. Smart optical probes for near-infrared fluorescence imaging of Alzheimer's disease pathology. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 35 Suppl. 2008 ; 1: S93-8
75. Reese T, Bjelke B, Porszasz R, Baumann D, Bochelen D, Sauter A. Regional brain activation by bicuculline visualized by functional magnetic resonance imaging: time-resolved assessment of bicuculline-induced changes in local cerebral blood volume using an intravascular contrast agent. NMR Biomed. 2000 ; 13 (1). 43-9 (Pubitemid 30137001)
76. Reivich M, Kuhl D, Wolf A, Greenberg J, Phelps M, Ido T. The [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose method for the measurement of local cerebral glucose utilization in man. Circ Res. 1979 ; 44 (1). 127-37 (Pubitemid 9089586)
77. Ridha BH, Barnes J, Bartlett JW, Godbolt A, Pepple T, Rossor MN. Tracking atrophy progression in familial Alzheimer's disease: a serial MRI study. Lancet Neurol. 2006 ; 5 (10). 828-34 (Pubitemid 44715810)
78. Rinne JO, Brooks DJ, Rossor MN, Fox NC, Bullock R, Klunk WE. 11C-PiB PET assessment of change in fibrillar amyloid-beta load in patients with Alzheimer's disease treated with bapineuzumab: a phase 2, double-blind, placebo-controlled, ascending-dose study. Lancet Neurol. 2010 ; 9 (4). 363-72
79. Rinne JO, Sahlberg N, Ruottinen H, Nagren K, Lehikoinen O. Striatal uptake of the dopamine reuptake ligand [11C]beta-CFT is reduced in Alzheimer's disease assessed by positron emission tomography. Neurology. 1998 ; 50 (1). 152-6
80. Rudin M Molecular imaging-basic principles and application in biomedical research. London: Imperial College Press ; 2005 :
81. Rudin M. Noninvasive imaging of receptor function: signal transduction pathways and physiological readouts. Curr Opin Drug Discov Dev. 2008 ; 11 (5). 606-15
82. Rudin M, Weissleder R. Molecular imaging in drug discovery and development. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2003 ; 2 (2). 123-31 (Pubitemid 37361644)
83. Schwarz A, Gozzi A, Reese T, Bertani S, Crestan V, Hagan J. Selective dopamine D(3) receptor antagonist SB-277011-A potentiates phMRI response to acute amphetamine challenge in the rat brain. Synapse. 2004 ; 54 (1). 1-10 (Pubitemid 39129668)
84. Schwarz AJ, Gozzi A, Reese T, Bifone A. Functional connectivity in the pharmacologically activated brain: resolving networks of correlated responses to d-amphetamine. Magn Reson Med. 2007a ; 57 (4). 704-13 (Pubitemid 46731796)
85. Schwarz AJ, Gozzi A, Reese T, Heidbreder CA, Bifone A. Pharmacological modulation of functional connectivity: the correlation structure underlying the phMRI response to d-amphetamine modified by selective dopamine D3 receptor antagonist SB277011A. Magn Reson Imaging. 2007b ; 25 (6). 811-20 (Pubitemid 47081359)
86. Seab JP, Jagust WJ, Wong ST, Roos MS, Reed BR, Budinger TF. Quantitative NMR measurements of hippocampal atrophy in Alzheimer's disease. Magn Reson Med. 1988 ; 8 (2). 200-8 (Pubitemid 18259510)
87. Semenza GL. Targeting HIF-1 for cancer therapy. Nat Rev Cancer. 2003 ; 3 (10). 721-32 (Pubitemid 37328811)
88. Shaner NC, Steinbach PA, Tsien RY. A guide to choosing fluorescent proteins. Nat Methods. 2005 ; 2 (12). 905-9 (Pubitemid 43108726)
89. Shi F, Liu B, Zhou Y, Yu C, Jiang T. Hippocampal volume and asymmetry in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: meta-analyses of MRI studies. Hippocampus. 2009 ; 19 (11). 1055-64
90. Silverman DHS, Melega WP PET-molecular imaging and its biological applications. Phelps ME, ed. New York: Springer ; 2004: 509-83.
91. Stefanova E, Wall A, Almkvist O, Nilsson A, Forsberg A, Langström B. Longitudinal PET evaluation of cerebral glucose metabolism in rivastigmine treated patients with mild Alzheimer's disease. J Neural Transm. 2006 ; 113 (2). 205-18 (Pubitemid 43121756)
92. Tjuvajev JG, Finn R, Watanabe K, Joshi R, Oku T, Kennedy J. Noninvasive imaging of herpes virus thymidine kinase gene transfer and expression: a potential method for monitoring clinical gene therapy. Cancer Res. 1996 ; 56 (18). 4087-95 (Pubitemid 26304995)
93. Tung CH, Mahmood U, Bredow S, Weissleder R. In vivo imaging of proteolytic enzyme activity using a novel molecular reporter. Cancer Res. 2000 ; 60 (17). 4953-8
94. Venneti S, Lopresti BJ, Wang G, Hamilton RL, Mathis CA, Klunk WE. PK11195 labels activated microglia in Alzheimer's disease and in vivo in a mouse model using PET. Neurobiol Aging. 2009 ; 30 (8). 1217-26
95. Walker Z, Costa DC, Walker RW, Shaw K, Gacinovic S, Stevens T. Differentiation of dementia with Lewy bodies from Alzheimer's disease using a dopaminergic presynaptic ligand. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002 ; 73 (2). 134-40
96. Watson A, Wu X, Bruchez M. Lighting up cells with quantum dots. Biotechniques. 2003 ; 34 (2). 296-303 (Pubitemid 36184087)
97. Winkler DT, Bondolfi L, Herzig MC, Jann L, Calhoun ME, Wiederhold KH. Spontaneous hemorrhagic stroke in a mouse model of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. J Neurosci. 2001 ; 21 (5). 1619-27 (Pubitemid 32182202)
98. Wise RG, Tracey I. The role of fMRI in drug discovery. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006 ; 23 (6). 862-76 (Pubitemid 43825441)
99. Wong DF, Rosenberg PB, Zhou Y, Kumar A, Raymont V, Ravert HT. In vivo imaging of amyloid deposition in Alzheimer disease using the radioligand 18F-AV-45 (florbetapir F 18). J Nucl Med. 2010 ; 51 (6). 913-20
100. Wunder A, Klohs J, Dirnagl U. Non-invasive visualization of CNS inflammation with nuclear and optical imaging. Neuroscience. 2009 ; 158 (3). 1161-73
101. Yasuno F, Ota M, Kosaka J, Ito H, Higuchi M, Doronbekov TK. Increased binding of peripheral benzodiazepine receptor in Alzheimer's disease measured by positron emission tomography with [11C]DAA1106. Biol Psychiatry. 2008 ; 64 (10). 835-41
102. Yoffe AD. Semiconductor quantum dots and related systems: electronic, optical, luminescence and related properties of low dimensional systems. Adv Phys. 2001 ; 50: 1-208