Categorization and Communication in the Face of Prejudice: When Describing Perceptions Changes What Is Perceived

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 101, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 321-336

  Binning, Kevin R ^a   Sherman, David K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Assimilation and contrast; Conspiracy theories; Internet media; Social influence; Social movements

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ANGER; ARTICLE; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; MALE; PERCEPTION; PSYCHOLOGIC TEST; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL MEDIA; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; ANGER; COMMUNICATION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PREJUDICE; PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; SEX FACTORS; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL MEDIA; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 79960776328     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0023153     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Adams G., O'Brien L., Nelson J.C. Perceptions of racism in Hurricane Katrina: A liberation psychology analysis. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 2006, 6:215-235.
2. Aronson E., Wilson T.D., Brewer M. Experimental methods. Handbook of social psychology 1998, 1:99-142. Random House, New York, NY. 4th ed. D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, G. Lindzey (Eds.).
3. Ashbee E. The Lott resignation, 'blogging' and American conservatism. Political Quarterly 2003, 74:361-370. doi: 10.1111/1467-923X.00545.
4. Bakhtin M.M. The dialogic imagination: Four essays by M. M. Bakhtin 1981, University of Texas Press, Austin.
5. Biernat M. Standards and expectancies: Contrast and assimilation in judgments of self and others 2005, Routledge, New York, NY, doi: 10.4324/9780203338933.
6. Biernat M., Manis M., Kobrynowicz D. Simultaneous assimilation and contrast effects in judgments of self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997, 73:254-269. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.73.2.254.
7. Biernat M., Manis M., Nelson T.E. Stereotypes and standards of judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1991, 60:485-499. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.485.
8. Blanchard F.A., Crandall C.S., Brigham J.C., Vaughn L.A. Condemning and condoning racism: A social context approach to interracial settings. Journal of Applied Psychology 1994, 79:993-997. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.993.
9. Blanchard F.A., Lilly T., Vaughn L.A. Reducing the expression of racial prejudice. Psychological Science 1991, 2:101-105. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00108.x.
10. Bless H., Schwarz N. Mental construal and the emergence of assimilation and contrast effects: The inclusion/exclusion model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 2010, 42:319-373. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(10)42006-7.
11. Bonilla-Silva E. Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States 2003, Rowman & Littlefield, Boulder, CO.
12. Clark H.H. Language use and language users. Handbook of social psychology 1985, 179-231. Random House, New York, NY. G. Lindzey, E. Aronson (Eds.).
13. Clark H.H., Brennan S.A. Grounding in communication. Perspectives on socially shared cognition 1991, 127-149. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. L.B. Resnick, J.M. Levine, S.D. Teasley (Eds.).
14. Clark H.H., Marshall C.R. Definite reference and mutual knowledge. Elements of discourse understanding 1981, 10-63. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. A.K. Joshi, B. Webber, I. Sag (Eds.).
15. Clark H.H., Schober M.F. Asking questions and influencing answers. Questions about questions: Inquiries into the cognitive bases of surveys 1992, 15-48. Russell Sage Foundation, New York, NY. J.M. Tanur (Ed.).
16. Cohen D., Nisbett R.E. Field experiments examining the culture of honor: The role of institutions in perpetuating norms about violence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1997, 23:1188-1199. doi: 10.1177/01461672972311006.
17. Cohen G.L. Party over policy: The dominating impact of group influence on political beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003, 85:808-822. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.808.
18. Collins E.C., Biernat M., Eidelman S. Stereotypes in the communication and translation of person impressions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2009, 45:368-374. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.005.
19. Cose E. The rage of a privileged class: Why are middle-class Blacks angry? Why should America care? 1993, Harper-Perennial, New York, NY.
20. Cramton C.D. The mutual knowledge problem and its consequences for dispersed collaboration. Organization Science 2001, 12:346-371. doi: 10.1287/orsc.12.3.346.10098.
21. Crandall C.S., Eshleman A., O'Brien L. Social norms and the expression and suppression of prejudice: The struggle for internalization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2002, 82:359-378. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.3.359.
22. Daniels J. Visualizing race and embodiment in cyberspace. Symbolic Interaction 2010, 33:141-144. doi: 10.1525/si.2010.33.1.141.
23. Darley J.M., Latanè B. Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1968, 8:377-383. doi: 10.1037/h0025589.
24. Ellemers N., Barreto M. Collective action in modern times: How modern expressions of prejudice prevent collective action. Journal of Social Issues 2009, 65:749-768. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01621.x.
25. Fast N.J., Heath C., Wu G. Common ground and cultural prominence: How conversation reinforces culture. Psychological Science 2009, 20:904-911.
26. Fiske S.T., Taylor S.E. Social cognition 1991, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. 2nd ed.
27. Fussell S.R., Krauss R.M. Coordination of knowledge in communication: Effects of speakers' assumptions about what others know. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1992, 62:378-391. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.62.3.378.
28. Gaertner J.L., Dovidio J.F. The aversive form of racism. Prejudice, discrimination, and racism 1986, 61-89. Academic Press, New York, NY. J.F. Dovidio, J.L. Gaertner (Eds.).
29. Galinsky A.D., Magee J.C., Inesi M.E., Gruenfeld D.H. Power and perspectives not taken. Psychological Science 2006, 17:1068-1074. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01824.x.
30. Gibbs R.W. Mutual knowledge and the psychology of conversational inference. Journal of Pragmatics 1987, 11:561-588. doi: 10.1016/0378-2166(87)90180-9.
31. Gilbert D.T., Lieberman M.D., Morewedge C.K., Wilson T.D. The peculiar longevity of things not so bad. Psychological Science 2004, 15:14-19. doi: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01501003.x.
32. Goldberg J.H., Lerner J.S., Tetlock P.E. Rage and reason: The psychology of the intuitive prosecutor. European Journal of Social Psychology 1999, 29:781-795. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199908/09)29:5/6<781::AID-EJSP960>3.0.CO;2-3.
33. Graumann C.F. Perspective setting and taking in verbal interaction. Language processing in social context 1989, 95-122. North-Holland, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. R. Dietrich, C.F. Graumann (Eds.).
34. Greenberg J., Pyszczynski T. The effect of an overheard ethnic slur on evaluations of the target: How to spread a social disease. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 1985, 21:61-72. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(85)90006-X.
35. Grice H.P. Logic and conversation. Syntax and semantics: Speech acts 1975, 3:41-58. Academic Press, New York, NY. P. Cole, J.L. Morgan (Eds.).
36. Gruenfeld D., Keltner D.J., Anderson C. The effects of power on those who possess it: How social structure can affect social cognition. Foundations of social cognition 2003, 237-261. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. G.V. Bodenhausen, A.J. Lambert (Eds.).
37. Haas T. From " Public Journalism" to the " Public's Journalism" ? Rhetoric and reality in the discourse on weblogs. Journalism Studies 2005, 6:387-396.
38. Haberstroh S., Oyserman D., Schwarz N., Kühnen U., Ji L. Is the interdependent self more sensitive to question context than the independent self? Self-construal and the observation of conversational norms. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2002, 38:323-329. doi: 10.1006/jesp.2001.1513.
39. Hardin C.D., Banaji M.R. The influence of language on thought. Social Cognition 1993, 11:277-308. doi: 10.1521/soco.1993.11.3.277.
40. Hardin C.D., Higgins E.T. Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. Handbook of motivation and cognition 1996, 3:28-84. Guilford Press, New York, NY. R.M. Sorrentino, E.T. Higgins (Eds.).
41. Hargrove T. Third of Americans suspect 9-11 government conspiracy. Scripps News 2006, August, Retrieved from http://www.scrippsnews.com/911poll.
42. Higgins E.T., Rholes W.S. " Saying is believing": Effects of message modification on memory and liking of the person described. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 1978, 14:363-378. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(78)90032-X.
43. Hilton D.J. The social context of reasoning: Conversational inference and rational judgment. Psychological Bulletin 1995, 118:248-271. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.118.2.248.
44. Holtgraves T.M. Social psychology and language: Words, utterances, and conversations. Handbook of social psychology 2010, 2:1386-1422. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ. 5th ed. S. Fiske, D.T. Gilbert, G. Lindzey (Eds.).
45. Holtgraves T.M., Kashima Y. Language, meaning, and social cognition. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2008, 12:73-94. doi: 10.1177/1088868307309605.
46. Inman M.L., Baron R.S. Influence of prototypes on perceptions of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1996, 70:727-739.
47. Innis H.A. Empire and communications 1950, Dundurn Press, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
48. Measuring the information society: Executive summary 2010, International Telecommunications Union, Author, Geneva, Switzerland.
49. Joseph, P. (Producer/Writer/Director). (2007). Zeitgeist: The movie [Motion picture]. United States: GMP.
50. Jost J.T., Banaji M.R. The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology 1994, 33:1-27.
51. Kahn R., Kellner D. New media and internet activism: From the 'Battle of Seattle' to blogging. New Media & Society 2004, 6:87-95. doi: 10.1177/1461444804039908.
52. Kim H.S. We talk, therefore we think? A cultural analysis of the effect of talking on thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2002, 83:828-842. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.4.828.
53. Kim H.S., Sherman D.K. " Express yourself": Culture and the effect of self-expression on choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2007, 92:1-11.
54. Langman L. From virtual public spheres to global justice: A critical theory of internetworked social movements. Sociological Theory 2005, 23:42-74. doi: 10.1111/j.0735-2751.2005.00242.x.
55. Ledgerwood A., Chaiken S. Priming us and them: Automatic assimilation and contrast in group attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2007, 93:940-956. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.940.
56. Lerner J.S., Tetlock P.R. Accounting for the effects of accountability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1999, 125:255-275.
57. Lind E.A., Kanfer R., Early P.C. Voice, control, and procedural justice: Instrumental and noninstrumental concerns in fairness judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1990, 59:952-959. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.952.
58. Lombardi W.J., Higgins E.T., Bargh J.A. The role of consciousness in priming effects on categorization: Assimilation and contrast as a function of awareness of the priming task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1987, 13:411-429. doi: 10.1177/0146167287133009.
59. Lucasiewicz, M., & Harvey, E. (Producers). (1991, September 26). True colors: Primetime live [Television broadcast]. New York: American Broadcasting Company.
60. Lyubomirsky S., Sousa L., Dickerhoof R. The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life's triumphs and defeats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2006, 90:692-708. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.692.
61. Mackinnon C.A. Toward a feminist theory of state 1989, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
62. Manis M., Cornell S.D., Moore J.C. Transmission of attitude-relevant information through a communication chain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1974, 30:81-94. doi: 10.1037/h0036639.
63. Markman A.B., Makin V.S. Referential communication and category acquisition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 1998, 127:331-354. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.127.4.331.
64. Martin L.L. Set/reset: Use and disuse of concepts in impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986, 51:493-504. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.493.
65. Mead G.H. The objective reality of perspectives. Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Philosophy 1927, 75-85. Longmans, Green, and Co, New York, NY. E.S. Brightman (Ed.).
66. Mead G.H. Mind, self, and society 1934, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
67. Mendelberg T. The race card: Campaign strategy, implicit messages, and the norm of equality 2001, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
68. Moghaddam F.M. The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist 2005, 60:161-169. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161.
69. Mosca L.A. A double-faced medium? The challenges and opportunities of the Internet for social movements. Net working/networking: Citizen-initiated Internet politics 2008, 41-73. University Press, Tampere, Finland. T. Häyhtiö, J. Rinne (Eds.).
70. Mussweiler T. Comparison processes in social judgment: Mechanisms and consequences. Psychological Review 2003, 110:472-489. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.110.3.472.
71. Mussweiler T., Bodenhausen G. I know you are but what am I? Self-evaluative consequences of judging in-group and out-group members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2002, 82:19-32. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.19.
72. Nakamura L. Digitizing race: Visual cultures of the Internet 2008, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
73. Nolen-Hoeksema S. The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2000, 109:504-511. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.109.3.504.
74. Ogle R. Smart world: Breakthrough creativity and the new science of ideas 2007, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA.
75. Pennebaker J.W. Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science 1997, 8:162-166. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00403.x.
76. Pennebaker J.W., Kiecolt-Glaser J., Glaser R. Disclosure of traumas and immune function: Health implications for psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1988, 56:239-245. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.56.2.239.
77. Prislin R., Christensen P.N. Group conversion versus group expansion as modes of change in majority and minority positions: All losses hurt but only some gains gratify. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2002, 83:1095-1102. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.83.5.1095.
78. Prislin R., Limbert W.M., Bauer E. From majority to minority and vice versa: The asymmetrical effects of losing and gaining majority position within a group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2000, 79:385-397. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.385.
79. Ray R.D., Wilhelm F.H., Gross J.J. All in the mind's eye? Anger rumination and reappraisal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2008, 94:133-145. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.133.
80. Richeson J.A., Ambady N. Effects of situational power on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2003, 39:177-183. doi: 10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00521-8.
81. Saad L. Blacks blast Bush for Katrina response. Gallup News Service 2005, September 14, Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/18526/blacks-blast-bush-katrina-response.aspx.
82. Schwarz N. Cognition and communication: Judgmental biases, research methods, and the logic of conversation 1996, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
83. Schwarz N., Bless H. Constructing reality and its alternatives: Assimilation and contrast effects in social judgment. The construction of social judgments 1992, 217-245. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. L.L. Martin, A. Tesser (Eds.).
84. Schwarz N., Clore G.L. Feelings and phenomenal experiences. Social psychology: A handbook of basic principles 2007, 385-407. Guilford Press, New York, NY. 2nd ed. E.T. Higgins, A.W. Kruglanski (Eds.).
85. Conspiracy poll findings 2006, August 1, Scripps News, Retrieved from http://scrippsnews.com/911polldata.
86. Shelton J.N., Richeson J.A., Salvatore J., Hill D.M. Silence is not golden: The intrapersonal consequences of not confronting prejudice. Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives 2006, 65-81. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. S. Levin, C. van Laar (Eds.).
87. Sherif M., Hovland C.I. Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in communication and attitude change 1961, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
88. Sidanius J., Pratto F. Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression 1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
89. Sperber D., Wilson D. Relevance: Communication and cognition 1986, Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.
90. Steele C.M. The art of Bob Zajonc and the communicative basis of prejudice. Unraveling the complexities of social life: A festschrift in honor of Robert B. Zajonc 2001, 175-185. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. J.A. Bargh, D.K. Apsley (Eds.).
91. Steels L., Belpaeme T. Coordinating perceptually grounded categories through language: A case study for colour. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2005, 28:469-489. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X05000087.
92. Strack F., Schwarz N., Bless H., Kübler A., Wänke M. Awareness of the influence as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast. European Journal of Social Psychology 1993, 23:53-62. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.2420230105.
93. Swim J.K., Scott E.D., Sechrist G.B., Campbell B., Stangor C. The role of intent and harm in judgments of prejudice and discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003, 85:944-959. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.944.
94. Tajfel H., Turner J. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. The psychology of intergroup relations 1986, 7-24. Nelson Hall, Chicago, IL. S. Worchel, W. Austin (Eds.).
95. Tajfel H., Wilkes A.L. Classification and quantitative judgement. British Journal of Psychology 1963, 54:101-114.
96. Taylor S.E., Falcone H. Cognitive bases of stereotyping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1982, 8:426-432. doi: 10.1177/0146167282083006.
97. Tetlock P.E. Accountability and the perseverance of first impressions. Social Psychology Quarterly 1983, 46:285-292. doi: 10.2307/3033716.
98. Turner J.C., Oakes P.J. Self-categorization theory and social influence. Psychology of group influence 1989, 235-275. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. 2nd ed. P.B. Paulus (Ed.).
99. Von Kleist, D. (Producer), & Lewis, W. (Producer/Writer/Director). (2004). 911 In Plane Site. United States: Bridgestone Media.
100. Zajonc R.B. The process of cognitive tuning in communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 1960, 61:159-167. doi: 10.1037/h0047987.
101. Zogby poll: 51% of Americans want Congress to probe Bush/Cheney regarding 9/11 attacks; over 30% seek immediate impeachment 2007, September 6, Zogby Poll, Retrieved from http://www.zogby.com/news/readnews.cfm?ID=1354.