Mosquito immunity

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 708, Issue , 2010, Pages 218-238

  Hillyer, Julián F ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MONOPHENOL MONOOXYGENASE; NITRIC OXIDE; PATTERN RECOGNITION RECEPTOR; POLYPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT;

AEDES AEGYPTI; ANIMAL ANATOMY; ANOPHELES GAMBIAE; ARTICLE; BLOOD CELL; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CUTICLE; FEEDING; HEMOCOEL COMPARTMENT; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; HUMORAL IMMUNITY; IMMUNOREGULATION; INFECTION RESISTANCE; INNATE IMMUNITY; INSECT GENETICS; LYSIS; MELANOGENESIS; MOSQUITO; MUCOSAL IMMUNITY; NONHUMAN; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RNA INTERFERENCE; SALIVARY GLAND; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 79960735237     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-8059-5_12     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Nasci RS, Miller BR. Culicine mosquitoes and the agents they transmit. In: Beaty BJ, Marquardt WC, eds. The Biology of Disease Vectors. Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996:85-97.
2. Gwadz R, Collins FH. Anopheline mosquitoes and the pathogens they transmit. In: Beaty BJ, Marquardt WC, eds. The Biology of Disease Vectors. Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1996:73-84.
3. Niaré O, Markianos K, Volz J et al. Genetic loci affecting resistance to human malaria parasites in a West African mosquito vector population. Science 2002; 298(5591):213-216.
4. Riehle MM, Markianos K, Niaré O et al. Natural malaria infection in Anopheles gambiae is regulated by a single genomic control region. Science 2006; 312(5773):577-579.
5. Beerntsen BT, Luckhart S, Christensen BM. Brugiamalayi andBrugiapahangi: Inherent difference in immune activation in the mosquitoes Armigeres subalbatus and Aedes aegypti. J Parasitol 1989; 75(1):76-81. (Pubitemid 19087327)
6. Castillo JC, Robertson AE, Strand MR. Characterization of hemocytes from the mosquitoes Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2006; 36(12):891-903. (Pubitemid 46053792)
7. Hernández-Martínez S, Lanz H, Rodríguez MH et al. Cellular-mediated reactions to foreign organisms inoculated into the hemocoel of Anopheles albimanus (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 2002; 39(1):61-69. (Pubitemid 135694288)
8. Hillyer JF, Schmidt SL, Christensen BM. Rapid phagocytosis and melanization of bacteria and Plasmodium sporozoites by hemocytes of the mosquito Aedes aegypti. J Parasitol 2003; 89(1):62-69. (Pubitemid 36278649)
9. Hillyer JF, Schmidt SL, Christensen BM. Hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis and melanization in the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus following immune challenge by bacteria. Cell Tissue Res 2003; 313(1):117-127. (Pubitemid 36976481)
10. Christensen BM, Li J, Chen C-C et al. Melanization immune responses in mosquito vectors. Trends Parasitol 2005; 21(4):192-199. (Pubitemid 40381258)
11. Dong Y, Dimopoulos G. Anopheles fibrinogen-relatedproteins provide expandedpattern recognition capacity against bacteria and malaria parasites. J Biol Chem 2009; 284(15):9835-9844.
12. Hillyer JF, Estévez-Lao TY. Nitric oxide is an essential component of the hemocyte-mediated mosquito immune response against bacteria. Dev Comp Immunol 2010; 34(2):141-149.
13. Lowenberger C. Innate immune response of Aedes aegypti. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2001; 31(3):219-229. (Pubitemid 32194777)
14. Luckhart S, Vodovotz Y, Cui L et al. The mosquito Anopheles stephensi limits malaria parasite development with inducible synthesis of nitric oxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998; 95(10):5700-5705. (Pubitemid 28224159)
15. Molina-Cruz A, DeJong RJ, Charles B et al. Reactive oxygen species modulate Anopheles gambiae immunity against bacteria and Plasmodium. J Biol Chem 2008; 283(6):3217-3223.
16. Bartholomay LC, Cho WL, RocheleauTA et al. Description of the transcriptomes of immune response-activated hemocytes from the mosquito vectors Aedes aegypti and Armigeres subalbatus. Infect Immun 2004; 72(7):4114-4126. (Pubitemid 38821927)
17. Baton L, Robertson A, Warr E et al. Genome-wide transcriptomic profiling of Anopheles gambiae hemocytes reveals pathogen-specific signatures upon bacterial challenge and Plasmodium berghei infection. BMC Genomics 2009; 10(1):257.
18. Walther CJ, Couche GA, Pfannenstiel MA et al. Analysis of mosquito larvicidal potential exhibited by vegetative cells of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis. Appl Environ Microbiol 1986; 52(4):650-653. (Pubitemid 16004638)
19. Blanford S, Chan BHK, Jenkins N et al. Fungal pathogen reduces potential for malaria transmission. Science 2005;308(5728):1638-1641. (Pubitemid 40807515)
20. Schnepf E, Crickmore N, Van Rie J et al. Bacillus thuringiensis and its pesticidal crystal proteins. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 1998; 62(3):775-806. (Pubitemid 28415553)
21. Roberts LS, Janovy Jr. J. Foundations of parasitology. 8th ed. Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education; 2009.
22. Ferdig MT, Beerntsen BT, Spray FJ et al. Reproductive costs associated with resistance in a mosquito-filarial worm system. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993; 49(6):756-762. (Pubitemid 24021775)
23. Ferguson HM, Read AF. Genetic and environmental determinants of malaria parasite virulence in mosquitoes. Proc Biol Sci 2002; 269(1497):1217-1224. (Pubitemid 34734603)
24. Scott TW, Lorenz LH. Reduction of Culiseta melanura fitness by eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998; 59(2):341-346. (Pubitemid 28419000)
25. Styer LM, Meola MA, Kramer LD. West Nile virus infection decreases fecundity of Culex tarsalis females. J Med Entomol 2007; 44(6):1074-1085. (Pubitemid 350208242)
26. Schmidt O, Theopold U, Beckage NE. Insect and vertebrate immunity: Key similarities versus differences. In: Beckage NE, ed. Insect Immunology. San Diego: Academic Press, 2008:1-23.
27. McGreevy PB, Bryan JH, Oothuman P et al. The lethal effects of the cibarial and pharyngeal armatures of mosquitoes on microfilariae. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1978; 72(4):361-368. (Pubitemid 8389148)
28. Abraham EG, Jacobs-Lorena M. Mosquito midgut barriers to malaria parasite development. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2004; 34(7):667-671. (Pubitemid 38893138)
29. Gonzalez-Ceron L, Rodriguez MH, Chavez-Munguia B et al. Plasmodium vivax: Impaired escape of Vk210 phenotype ookinetes from the midgut blood bolus of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis. Exp Parasitol 2007; 115(1):59-67.
30. Kato N, Mueller CR, Fuchs JF et al. Evaluation of the function of a type I peritrophic matrix as a physical barrier for midgut epithelium invasion by mosquito-borne pathogens in Aedes aegypti. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008; 8(5):701-712.
31. Ito J, Ghosh A, Moreira LA et al. Transgenic anopheline mosquitoes impaired in transmission of a malaria parasite. Nature 2002; 417(6887):452-455. (Pubitemid 34563538)
32. Santos JN, Lanfredi RM, Pimenta PFP. The invasion of the midgut of the mosquito Culex (Culex) quinquefasciatus Say, 1823 by the helminth Litomosoides chagasfilhoi Moraes Neto, Lanfredi and De Souza, 1997. J Invertebr Pathol 2006; 93( 1): 1-10.
33. Whitten MMA, Shiao S-H, Levashina EA. Mosquito midguts and malaria: Cell biology, compartmentalization and immunology. Parasite Immunol 2006; 28(4):121-130.
34. Alavi Y, Arai M, Mendoza J et al. The dynamics of interactions between Plasmodium and the mosquito: A study of the infectivity of Plasmodium berghei and Plasmodium gallinaceum and their transmission by Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. Int J Parasitol 2003; 33(9):933-943. (Pubitemid 37297460)
35. Collins FH, Sakai RK, Vernick KD et al. Genetic selection of a Plasmodium-refractory strain of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Science 1986; 234(4776):607-610. (Pubitemid 17186176)
36. Fraiture M, Baxter RHG, Steinert S et al. Two mosquito LRRR proteins function as complement control factors in the TEP1-mediated killing of Plasmodium. Cell Host Microbe 2009; 5(3):273-284.
37. Osta MA, Christophides GK, Kafatos FC. Effects of mosquito genes on Plasmodium development. Science 2004; 303(5666):2030-2032. (Pubitemid 38393280)
38. Povelones M, Waterhouse RM, Kafatos FC et al. Leucine-rich repeat protein complex activates mosquito complement in defense against Plasmodium parasites. Science 2009; 324(5924):258-261.
39. Vernick KD, Fujioka H, Seeley DC et al. Plasmodium gallinaceum: A refractory mechanism of ookinete killing in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Exp Parasitol 1995; 80(4):583-595.
40. Volz J, Müller HM, Zdanowicz A et al. A genetic module regulates the melanization response of Anopheles to Plasmodium. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8(9):1392-1405. (Pubitemid 44194573)
41. Dong Y, Aguilar R, Xi Z et al. Anopheles gambiae immune responses to human and rodent Plasmodium parasite species. PLoS Pathog 2006; 2(6):e52.
42. González-Lázaro M, Dinglasan RR, Hernández- Hernández FdlC et al. Anopheles gambiae Croquemort SCRBQ2, expression profile in the mosquito and its potential interaction with the malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2009; 39(5-6):395-402.
43. Lim J, Gowda DC, Krishnegowda G et al. Induction of nitric oxide synthase in Anopheles stephensi by Plasmodium falciparum: Mechanism of signaling and the role of parasite glycosylphosphatidylinositols. Infect Immun 2005; 73(5):2778-2789. (Pubitemid 40570344)
44. Sanders HR, Foy BD, Evans AM et al. Sindbis virus induces transport processes and alters expression of innate immunity pathway genes in the midgut of the disease vector, Aedes aegypti. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 35(11): 1293-1307. (Pubitemid 41412222)
45. Xu X, Dong Y, Abraham EG et al. Transcriptome analysis of Anopheles stephensi-Plasmodium berghei interactions. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 142(1):76-87. (Pubitemid 40720130)
46. Blandin SA, Shiao S-H, Moita LF et al. Complement-like protein TEP1 is a determinant of vectorial capacity in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Cell 2004; 116(5):661-670. (Pubitemid 38326725)
47. Pinto SB, Lombardo F, Koutsos AC et al. Discovery of Plasmodium modulators by genome-wide analysis of circulating hemocytes in Anopheles gambiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106(50):21270-21275.
48. Lai S-C, Chen C-C, Hou RF. Electron microscopic observations on wound-healing in larvae of the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 2001; 38(6):836-843. (Pubitemid 33620475)
49. Lai S-C, Chen C-C, Hou RF. Immunolocalization of prophenoloxidase in the process of wound healing in the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus (Diptera: Culicidae). J Med Entomol 2002; 39(2):266-274. (Pubitemid 135695962)
50. Bain O, Babayan S. Behaviour of filariae: Morphological and anatomical signatures of their life style within the arthropod and vertebrate hosts. Filaria J 2003; 2(1):16.
51. Glenn JD, King JG, Hillyer JF. Structural mechanics of the mosquito heart and its function in bidirectional hemolymph transport. J Exp Biol 2010; 213(4):541-550.
52. Morahan BJ, Wang L, Coppel RL. No TRAP, no invasion. Trends Parasitol 2009; 25(2):77-84.
53. Vanderberg JP. Studies on the motility of Plasmodium sporozoites. J Protozool 1974; 21(4):527-537.
54. Hillyer JF, Schmidt SL, Christensen BM. The antibacterial innate immune response by the mosquito Aedes aegypti is mediated by hemocytes and independent of Gram type and pathogenicity. Microbes Infect 2004; 6(5):448-459. (Pubitemid 38510600)
55. Bartholomay LC, Mayhew GF, Fuchs JF et al. Profiling infection responses in the haemocytes of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Insect Mol Biol 2007; 16(6):761-776. (Pubitemid 350290896)
56. Wang X, Fuchs JF, Infanger L-C et al. Mosquito innate immunity: Involvement ofbeta 1,3-glucan recognition protein in melanotic encapsulation immune responses in Armigeres subalbatus. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 139(1):65-73. (Pubitemid 40029597)
57. Hillyer JF, Christensen BM. Characterization of hemocytes from the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Histochem Cell Biol 2002; 117(5):431-440. (Pubitemid 34569328)
58. Hillyer JF, Schmidt SL, Fuchs JF et al. Age-associated mortality in immune challenged mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti) correlates with a decrease in haemocyte numbers. Cell Microbiol 2005; 7(1):39-51.
59. Hillyer JF, Barreau C, Vernick KD. Efficiency of salivary gland invasion by malaria sporozoites is controlled by rapid sporozoite destruction in the mosquito haemocoel. Int J Parasitol 2007; 37(6):673-681. (Pubitemid 46440942)
60. Johnson JK, Rocheleau TA, Hillyer JF et al. A potential role for phenylalanine hydroxylase in mosquito immune responses. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2003; 33(3):345-354. (Pubitemid 36280556)
61. Infanger L-C, Rocheleau TA, Bartholomay LC et al. The role of phenylalanine hydroxylase in melanotic encapsulation of filarial worms in two species of mosquitoes. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2004: 34(12):1329-1338. (Pubitemid 39501044)
62. Shiao S-H, Higgs S, Adelman Z et al. Effect of prophenoloxidase expression knockout on the melanization of microfilariae in the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus. Insect Mol Biol 2001; 10(4):315-321. (Pubitemid 32747948)
63. Taft AS, Chen CC, Li J et al. Molecular cloning of two prophenoloxidase genes from the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Insect Mol Biol 2001; 10(1):97-103. (Pubitemid 32176705)
64. Bidla G, Dushay MS, Theopold U. Crystal cell rupture after injury in Drosophila requires the JNK pathway, small GTPases and the TNF homolog Eiger. J Cell Sci 2007; 120(Pt 7):1209-1215. (Pubitemid 46711839)
65. Shrestha S, Kim Y. Eicosanoids mediate prophenoloxidase release from oenocytoids in the beet armyworm Spodoptera exigua. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 38(1):99-112. (Pubitemid 350216437)
66. Charroux B, Royet J. Elimination of plasmatocytes by targeted apoptosis reveals their role in multiple aspects of the Drosophila immune response. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106(24):9797-9802.
67. Jones JC. The heart and associated tissues of Anopheles quadrimaculatus say (Diptera: Culicidae). JMorphol 1954; 94(1):71-124.
68. Pal R. Nephrocytes in some Culicidae-Diptera. Indian J Entomol 1944; 6:143-148.
69. Barillas-Mury C, Han YS, Seeley D et al. Anopheles gambiae Ag-STAT, a new insect member of the STAT family, is activated in response to bacterial infection. EMBO J 1999; 18(4):959-967. (Pubitemid 29082275)
70. Danielli A, Kafatos FC, Loukeris TG. Cloning and characterization of four Anopheles gambiae serpin isoforms, differentially induced in the midgut by Plasmodium berghei invasion. J Biol Chem 2003; 278(6):4184-4193. (Pubitemid 36801156)
71. Martins GF, Pimenta PFP. Structural changes in fat body of Aedes aegypti caused by aging and blood feeding. J Med Entomol 2008; 45(6):1102-1107.
72. Raikhel AS, Kokoza VA, Zhu J et al. Molecular biology of mosquito vitellogenesis: From basic studies to genetic engineering of antipathogen immunity. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2002; 32(10):1275-1286.
73. Bartholomay LC, Farid HA, Ramzy RM et al. Culex pipiens pipiens: Characterization of immune peptides and the influence of immune activation on development of Wuchereria bancrofti. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2003; 130(1):43-50. (Pubitemid 37205160)
74. Lowenberger C, Charlet M, Vizioli J et al. Antimicrobial activity spectrum, cDNA cloning and mRNA expression of a newly isolated member of the cecropin family from the mosquito vector Aedes aegypti. J Biol Chem 1999; 274(29):20092-20097.
75. Vizioli J, Bulet P, Hoffmann JA et al. Gambicin: A novel immune responsive antimicrobial peptide from the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98(22):12630-12635. (Pubitemid 33019997)
76. Cao-Lormeau V-M. Dengue viruses binding proteins from Aedes aegypti and Aedes polynesiensis salivary glands. Virol J 2009; 6:35.
77. Ghosh AK, Devenport M, Jethwaney D et al. Malaria parasite invasion of the mosquito salivary gland requires interaction between the plasmodium TRAP and the anopheles saglin proteins. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5(1):e1000265.
78. Korochkina S, Barreau C, Pradel G et al. A mosquito-specific protein family includes candidate receptors for malaria sporozoite invasion of salivary glands. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8(1):163-175. (Pubitemid 43355530)
79. Arcá B, Lombardo F, Francischetti IMB et al. An insight into the sialome of the adult female mosquito Aedes albopictus. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 37(2):107-127. (Pubitemid 46109304)
80. Arcá B, Lombardo F, Valenzuela JG et al. An updated catalogue of salivary gland transcripts in the adult female mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. J Exp Biol 2005; 208(Pt 20):3971-3986. (Pubitemid 41617721)
81. Choumet V, Carmi-Leroy A, Laurent C et al. The salivary glands andsaliva of Anopheles gambiae as an essential step in the Plasmodium life cycle: A global proteomic study. Proteomics 2007; 7(18):3384-3394. (Pubitemid 47517953)
82. Dixit R, Sharma A, Mourya DT et al. Salivary gland transcriptome analysis during Plasmodium infection in malaria vector Anopheles stephensi. Int J Infect Dis 2009; 13(5):636-646.
83. Ribeiro JMC, Charlab R, Pham VM et al. An insight into the salivary transcriptome andproteome of the adult female mosquito Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2004; 34(6):543-563. (Pubitemid 38658975)
84. Rosinski-Chupin I, Briolay J, Brouilly P et al. SAGE analysis of mosquito salivary gland transcriptomes during Plasmodium invasion. Cell Microbiol 2007; 9(3):708-724. (Pubitemid 46231976)
85. Serazin AC, Dana AN, Hillenmeyer ME et al. Comparative analysis of the global transcriptome of Anopheles funestus from Mali, West Africa. PLoS ONE 2009; 4(11):e7976.
86. Thangamani S, Wikel SK. Differential expression of Aedes aegypti salivary transcriptome upon blood feeding. Parasit Vectors 2009; 2(1):34.
87. Pinto SB, Kafatos FC, Michel K. The parasite invasion marker SRPN6 reduces sporozoite numbers in salivary glands of Anopheles gambiae. Cell Microbiol 2008; 10(4):891-898. (Pubitemid 351386944)
88. Christophides GK, Zdobnov E, Barillas-Mury C et al. Immunity-related genes and gene families in Anopheles gambiae. Science 2002; 298(5591):159-165.
89. Holt RA, Subramanian GM, Halpern A et al. The genome sequence of the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Science 2002; 298(5591):129-149.
90. Nene V, Wortman JR, Lawson D et al. Genome sequence of Aedes aegypti, a major arbo virus vector. Science 2007;316(5832):1718-1723. (Pubitemid 46988541)
91. Waterhouse RM, Kriventseva EV, Meister S et al. Evolutionary dynamics of immune-related genes and pathways in disease-vector mosquitoes. Science 2007; 316(5832):1738-1743. (Pubitemid 46988547)
92. Das S, Dong Y, Garver L et al. Specificity of the innate immune system: A closer look at the mosquito pattern-recognition receptor repertoire. sws Rolff J, Reynolds SE, eds. Insect Infection and Immunity. Oxford, Oxford University Press 2009: 69-85.
93. Levashina EA, Moita LF, Blandin S A et al. Conserved role of a complement-like protein in phagocytosis revealed by dsRNA knockout in cultured cells of the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Cell 2001; 104(5):709-718. (Pubitemid 32241021)
94. Moita LF, Wang-Sattler R, Michel K et al. In vivo identification of novel regulators and conserved pathways of phagocytosis in A. gambiae. Immunity 2005; 23(1):65-73. (Pubitemid 41019658)
95. Blandin S A, Wang-Sattler R, Lamacchia M et al. Dissecting the genetic basis of resistance to malaria parasites in Anopheles gambiae. Science 2009; 326(5949):147-150.
96. Riehle MM, Xu J, Lazzaro BP et al. Anopheles gambiae APL1 is a family of variable LRRR proteins required for Rel1-mediated protection from the malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei. PLoS ONE 2008; 3(11):e3672.
97. Schnitger AKD, Yassine H, Kafatos FC et al. Two C-type lectins cooperate to defend Anopheles gambiae against Gram-negative bacteria. J Biol Chem 2009; 284(26):17616-17624.
98. Dimopoulos G, Richman A, Müller HM et al. Molecular immune responses of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae to bacteria and malaria parasites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997; 94(21):11508-11513. (Pubitemid 27451029)
99. Warr E, Das S, Dong Y et al. The Gram-negative bacteria-binding protein gene family: Its role in the innate immune system of anopheles gambiae and in anti-Plasmodium defence. Insect Mol Biol 2008; 17(1):39-51. (Pubitemid 351171298)
100. Garver LS, Xi Z, Dimopoulos G. Immunoglobulin superfamily members play an important role in the mosquito immune system. Dev Comp Immunol 2008; 32(5):519-531. (Pubitemid 351172447)
101. Dong Y, Taylor HE, Dimopoulos G. AgDscam, a hypervariable immunoglobulin domain-containing receptor of the Anopheles gambiae innate immune system. PLoS Biol 2006; 4(7):e229.
102. Wang X, Zhao Q, Christensen BM. Identification and characterization of the fibrinogen-like domain of fibrinogen-related proteins in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae and the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster, genomes. BMC Genomics 2005; 6:114.
103. Wang X, Rocheleau TA, Fuchs JF et al. A novel lectin with a fibrinogen-like domain and its potential involvement in the innate immune response of Armigeres subalbatus against bacteria. Insect Mol Biol 2004; 13(3):273-282. (Pubitemid 38791175)
104. Frolet C, Thoma M, Blandin SA et al. Boosting NF-kappaB-dependent basal immunity of Anopheles gambiae aborts development of Plasmodium berghei. Immunity 2006; 25(4):677-685. (Pubitemid 44529039)
105. Zou Z, Shin SW, Alvarez KS et al. Mosquito RUUNX4 in the immune regulation of PPO gene expression and its effect on avian malaria parasite infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008; 105(47): 18454-18459.
106. Bian G, Shin SW, Cheon H-M et al. Transgenic alteration of Toll immune pathway in the female mosquito Aedes aegypti. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102(38):13568-13573. (Pubitemid 41420889)
107. Xi Z, Ramirez JL, Dimopoulos G. The Aedes aegypti toll pathway controls dengue virus infection. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4(7):e1000098.
108. Meister S, Kanzok SM, Zheng X-L et al. Immune signaling pathways regulating bacterial and malaria parasite infection of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102(32):1 1420-11425. (Pubitemid 41153835)
109. Garver LS, Dong Y, Dimopoulos G. Caspar controls resistance to Plasmodium falciparum in diverse anopheline species. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5(3):e1000335.
110. Gupta L, Molina-Cruz A, Kumar S et al. The STAT pathway mediates late-phase immunity against Plasmodium in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae. Cell Host Microbe 2009; 5(5):498-507.
111. Souza-Neto JA, Sim S, Dimopoulos G. An evolutionary conserved function of the JAK-STAT pathway in anti-dengue defense. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009; 106(42):17841-17846.
112. Lowenberger C, Bulet P, Charlet M et al. Insect immunity: Isolation of three novel inducible antibacterial defensins from the vector mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 1995; 25(7):867-873.
113. Steiner H, Hultmark D, Engstrom A et al. Sequence and specificity of two antibacterial proteins involved in insect immunity. Nature 1981; 292(5820):246-248. (Pubitemid 11001840)
114. Luna C, Hoa NT, Lin H et al. Expression of immune responsive genes in cell lines from two different Anopheline species. Insect Mol Biol 2006; 15(6):721-729. (Pubitemid 44952707)
115. Shin SW, Kokoza V, Lobkov I et al. Relish-mediated immune deficiency in the transgenic mosquito Aedes aegypti. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100(5):2616-2621. (Pubitemid 36297547)
116. Dimopoulos G, Seeley D, Wolf A et al. Malaria infection of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae activates immune-responsive genes during critical transition stages of the parasite life cycle. EMBO J 1998; 17(21):6115-6123. (Pubitemid 28497785)
117. Erickson SM, Xi Z, Mayhew GF et al. Mosquito infection responses to developing filarial worms. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009; 3(10):e529.
118. Kumar BA, Paily KP. Identification of immune-responsive genes in the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus infected with the filarial parasite Wuchereria bancrofti. Med Vet Entomol 2008; 22(4):394-398.
119. Blandin SA, Moita LF, Köcher T et al. Reverse genetics in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae: Targeted disruption of the Defensin gene. EMBO Rep 2002; 3(9):852-856. (Pubitemid 35154110)
120. Bartholomay LC, Fuchs JF, Cheng L-L et al. Reassessing the role of defensin in the innate immune response of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Insect Mol Biol 2004; 13(2):125-132. (Pubitemid 38522242)
121. Magalhaes T, Leandro DC, Ayres CFJ. Knock-down of REL2, but not defensin A, augments Aedes aegypti susceptibility to Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli. Acta Trop 2010; 113(2):167-173.
122. Kim W, Koo H, Richman AM et al. Ectopic expression of a cecropin transgene in the human malaria vector mosquito Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae): Effects on susceptibility to Plasmodium. J Med Entomol 2004; 41(3):447-455. (Pubitemid 38700077)
123. Chen CC, Chen CS. Brugia pahangi: Effects of melanization on the uptake of nutrients by microfilariae in vitro. Exp Parasitol 1995; 81(1):72-78.
124. Nappi AJ, Christensen BM. Melanogenesis and associated cytotoxic reactions: Applications to insect innate immunity. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 35(5):443-459. (Pubitemid 40440937)
125. Wang X, Rocheleau TA, Fuchs JF et al. Beta 1,3-glucan recognition protein from the mosquito, Armigeres subalbatus, is involved in the recognition of distinct types of bacteria in innate immune responses. Cell Microbiol 2006; 8(10):1581-1590. (Pubitemid 44350017)
126. Volz J, Osta MA, Kafatos FC et al. The roles of two clip domain serine proteases in innate immune responses of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. J Biol Chem 2005; 280(48):40161-40168. (Pubitemid 41779152)
127. Paskewitz SM, Andreev O, Shi L. Gene silencing of serine proteases affects melanization of Sephadex beads in Anopheles gambiae. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2006; 36(9):701-711. (Pubitemid 44278586)
128. Liu CT, Hou RF, Ashida M et al. Effects of inhibitors of serine protease, phenoloxidase and dopa decarboxylase on the melanization of Dirofilaria immitis microfilariae with Armigeres subalbatus haemolymph in vitro. Parasitology 1997; 115(Pt 1):57-68. (Pubitemid 27337228)
129. Abraham EG, Pinto SB, Ghosh A et al. An immune-responsive serpin, SRPN6, mediates mosquito defense against malaria parasites. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102(45):16327-16332. (Pubitemid 41688913)
130. Michel K, Budd A, Pinto S et al. Anopheles gambiae SRPN2 facilitates midgut invasion by the malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. EMBO Rep 2005; 6(9):891-897. (Pubitemid 43108682)
131. Cohuet A, Osta MA, Morlais I et al. Anopheles and Plasmodium: From laboratory models to natural systems in the field. EMBO Rep 2006; 7(12):1285-1289. (Pubitemid 44835099)
132. Michel K, Suwanchaichinda C, Morlais I et al. Increased melanizing activity in Anopheles gambiae does not affect development of Plasmodium falciparum. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103(45):16858-16863. (Pubitemid 44737343)
133. Zhao X, Ferdig MT, Li J et al. Biochemical pathway of melanotic encapsulation of Brugia malayi in the mosquito, Armigeres subalbatus. Dev Comp Immunol 1995; 19(3):205-215.
134. Huang C-Y, Christensen BM, Chen C-C. Role of dopachrome conversion enzyme in the melanization of filarial worms in mosquitoes. Insect Mol Biol 2005; 14(6):675-682. (Pubitemid 44914749)
135. Huang C-Y, Chou S-Y, Bartholomay LC et al. The use of gene silencing to study the role of dopa decarboxylase in mosquito melanization reactions. Insect Mol Biol 2005; 14(3):237-244. (Pubitemid 40801931)
136. Paskewitz SM, Andreev O. Silencing the genes for dopa decarboxylase or dopachrome conversion enzyme reduces melanization of foreign targets in Anopheles gambiae. Comp Biochem Physiol B, Biochem Mol Biol 2008; 150(4):403-408.
137. Rivero A. Nitric oxide: An antiparasitic molecule of invertebrates. Trends Parasitol 2006; 22(5):219-225.
138. Luckhart S, Li K. Transcriptional complexity of the Anopheles stephensi nitric oxide synthase gene. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2001; 31(3):249-256. (Pubitemid 32194780)
139. Luckhart S, Rosenberg R. Gene structure and polymorphism of an invertebrate nitric oxide synthase gene. Gene 1999; 232(1):25-34. (Pubitemid 29305314)
140. Akman-Anderson L, Olivier M, Luckhart S. Induction of nitric oxide synthase and activation of signaling proteins in Anopheles mosquitoes by the malaria pigment, hemozoin. Infect Immun 2007; 75(8):4012-4019. (Pubitemid 47206300)
141. Han YS, Thompson J, Kafatos FC et al. Molecular interactions between Anopheles stephensi midgut cells and Plasmodium berghei: The time bomb theory of ookinete invasion of mosquitoes. EMBO J 2000; 19(22):6030-6040.
142. Peterson TML, Gow AJ, Luckhart S. Nitric oxide metabolites induced in Anopheles stephensi control malaria parasite infection. Free Radic Biol Med 2007; 42(1):132-142. (Pubitemid 44839158)
143. Kumar S, Christophides GK, CanteraR et al. The role of reactive oxygen species on Plasmodium melanotic encapsulation in Anopheles gambiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003; 100(24):14139-14144. (Pubitemid 37499204)
144. Lanz-Mendoza H, Hernandez-Martinez S, Ku-Lopez M et al. Superoxide anion in Anopheles albimanus hemolymph and midgut is toxic to Plasmodium berghei ookinetes. J Parasitol 2002; 88(4):702-706. (Pubitemid 34875692)
145. Herrera-Ortiz A, Lanz-Mendoza H, Martínez-Barnetche J et al. Plasmodium berghei ookinetes induce nitric oxide production in Anopheles pseudopunctipennis midguts cultured in vitro. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2004; 34(9):893-901. (Pubitemid 40047467)
146. Kumar S, Gupta L, Han YS et al. Inducible peroxidases mediate nitration of anopheles midgut cells undergoing apoptosis in response to Plasmodium invasion. J Biol Chem 2004; 279(51):53475-53482. (Pubitemid 40051853)
147. Moita LF, Vriend G, Mahairaki V et al. Integrins of Anopheles gambiae and a putative role of a new beta integrin, BINT2, in phagocytosis of E. coli. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 2006; 36(4):282-290.
148. Ellis RE, Jacobson DM, Horvitz HR. Genes required for the engulfment of cell corpses during programmed cell death in Caenorhabditis elegans. Genetics 1991; 129(1):79-94.
149. Hedgecock EM, Sulston JE, Thomson JN. Mutations affecting programmed cell deaths in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 1983; 220(4603): 1277-1279. (Pubitemid 13104188)
150. Mangahas PM, Zhou Z. Clearance of apoptotic cells in Caenorhabditis elegans. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2005; 16(2):295-306. (Pubitemid 40432130)
151. Jasinskiene N, Coates CJ, Benedict MQ et al. Stable transformation of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, with the Hermes element from the
152. Olson KE, Higgs S, Gaines PJ et al. Genetically engineered resistance to dengue-2 virus transmission in mosquitoes. Science 1996; 272(5263):884-886. (Pubitemid 26154593)
153. Roberts L. Mosquitoes and disease. Science 2002; 298(5591):82-83.
154. Curtis C. Possible use of translocations to fix desirable genes in insect pest populations. Nature 1968: 218(5139):368-369.
155. Terenius O, Marinotti O, Sieglaff D et al. Molecular genetic manipulation of vector mosquitoes. Cell Host Microbe 2008; 4(5):417-423.