A comprehensive review of upper GI and Small bowel bleeding: The role of modern imaging technology and advanced endoscopy

Journal of Surgical Radiology

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 24-41

  Kobayashi, Leslie M ^a   Borsatto, Ricardo ^b   Coimbra, Raul ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

^b Banner Estrella Medical Center   (United States)

Author keywords

Angiography; CT; Esophageal varices; Gastrointestinal; Peptic ulcer disease; Tagged RBC

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; CONTRAST MEDIUM; ENEMA; OCTREOTIDE; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; SCLEROSING AGENT; TECHNETIUM SULFUR COLLOID TC 99M; VASOPRESSIN;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANGIOGRAPHY; ARTERIOVENOUS FISTULA; ARTIFICIAL EMBOLISM; BLOOD VESSEL INJURY; CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY; COMPARTMENT SYNDROME; COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC ANGIOGRAPHY; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST RADIOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DOUBLE BALLOON ENTEROSCOPY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DUODENUM ULCER; ENDOSCOPIC SCLEROTHERAPY; ENDOSCOPY; ERYTHROCYTE TRANSFUSION; ESOPHAGOGASTRODUODENOSCOPY; ESOPHAGUS VARICES; FALSE ANEURYSM; GASTROINTESTINAL ENDOSCOPY; GASTROINTESTINAL SURGERY; HEMATOMA; HUMAN; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INTESTINAL BLEEDING; INTESTINE CANCER; INTESTINE PERFORATION; ISCHEMIA; KIDNEY DISEASE; LIGATION; NEPHROGENIC SYSTEMIC FIBROSIS; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OCCULT BLOOD; PANCREATITIS; PEPTIC ULCER; PEROPERATIVE COMPLICATION; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PROVOCATIVE ANGIOGRAPHY; PROVOCATIVE ENDOSCOPY; PROVOCATIVE SCINTIGRAPHY; PUSH ENTEROSCOPY; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; SCINTIGRAPHY; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SINGLE BALLOON ENTEROSCOPY; STOMACH ULCER; THROMBOSIS; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; TREATMENT INDICATION; UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING;

EID: 79959393388     PISSN: 2156213X     EISSN: 21564566     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Gracias, V. Reilly, P. McKenny, M. Velmahos, G (Ed.) Acute Care Surgery: A Guide for General Surgeons: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
2. Burke, S. J., Golzarian, J., Weldon, D., and Sun, S. Nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Eur. Radiol. 17: 1714-1726, 2007.
3. Graca, B. M., Freire, P. A., Brito, J. B., Ilharco, J. M., Carvalheiro, V. M., and Caseiro-Alves, F. Gastroenterologic and radiologic approach to obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: how, why, and when? Radiographics 30: 235-252, 2010.
4. Singh, V., and Alexander, J. A. The evaluation and management of obscure and occult gastrointestinal bleeding. Abdom. Imaging 34: 311-319, 2009.
5. Ohmiya, N., Yano, T., Yamamoto, H., Arakawa, D., Nakamura, M., Honda, W., Itoh, A., Hirooka, Y., Niwa, Y., Maeda, O., Ando, T., Yao, T.,Matsui, T., Iida, M., Tanaka, S., Chiba, T., Sakamoto, C., Sugano, K., and Goto, H. Diagnosis and treatment of obscure GI bleeding at double balloon endoscopy. Gastrointest. Endosc. 66: S72-7, 2007.
6. Filippone, A., Cianci, R., Milano, A., Valeriano, S., Di Mizio, V., and Storto, M. L. Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding and small bowel pathology: comparison between wireless capsule endoscopy and multidetector-row CT enteroclysis. Abdom. Imaging 33: 398-406, 2008.
7. Prakash, C., and Zuckerman, G. R. Acute small bowel bleeding: a distinct entity with significantly different economic implications compared with GI bleeding from other locations. Gastrointest. Endosc. 58: 330-335, 2003.
8. Van Dam, J., and Brugge, W. R. Endoscopy of the upper gastrointestinal tract. N. Engl. J. Med. 341: 1738-1748, 1999.
9. Cappell, M. S., and Medscape Therapeutic endoscopy for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 7: 214-229, 2010.
10. Cappell, M. S., and Friedel, D. Initial management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding: from initial evaluation up to gastrointestinal endoscopy. Med. Clin. North Am. 92: 491-509, xi, 2008.
11. Dohler, K. D., and Meyer, M. Vasopressin analogues in the treatment of hepatorenal syndrome and gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Anaesthesiol. 22: 335-350, 2008.
12. Abid, S., Jafri, W., Hamid, S., Salih, M., Azam, Z., Mumtaz, K., Shah, H. A., and Abbas, Z. Terlipressin vs. octreotide in bleeding esophageal varices as an adjuvant therapy with endoscopic band ligation: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 104: 617-623, 2009.
13. Barkun, A. N., Bardou, M., Kuipers, E. J., Sung, J., Hunt, R. H., Martel, M., Sinclair, P., and International Consensus Upper Gastrointestinal Bleeding Conference Group International consensus recommendations on the management of patients with nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Ann. Intern. Med. 152: 101-113, 2010.
14. Concha, R., Amaro, R., and Barkin, J. S. Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: diagnostic and therapeutic approach. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 41: 242-251, 2007.
15. Schoenberg, M. H. Surgical therapy for peptic ulcer and nonvariceal bleeding. Langenbecks Arch. Surg. 386: 98-103, 2001.
16. Lau, J. Y., Sung, J. J., Lam, Y. H., Chan, A. C., Ng, E. K., Lee, D. W., Chan, F. K., Suen, R. C., and Chung, S. C. Endoscopic retreatment compared with surgery in patients with recurrent bleeding after initial endoscopic control of bleeding ulcers. N. Engl. J. Med. 340: 751-756, 1999.
17. Rubin, M., Hussain, S. A., Shalomov, A., Cortes, R. A., Smith, M. S., and Kim, S. H. Live View Video Capsule Endoscopy Enables Risk Stratification of Patients with Acute Upper GI Bleeding in the Emergency Room: A Pilot Study. Dig. Dis. Sci., 2010.
18. Kohn, A., Ancona, C., Belleudi, V., Davoli, M., Giglio, L., Fusco, D., Andreoli, A., Perucci, C., and Prantera, C. The impact of endoscopy and specialist care on 30-day mortality among patients with acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: An Italian populationbased study. Dig. Liver Dis. 42: 629-634, 2010.
19. Leitman, I. M., Paull, D. E., and Shires, G. T.,3rd Evaluation and management of massive lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Ann. Surg. 209: 175-180, 1989.
20. Walsh, R. M., Anain, P., Geisinger, M., Vogt, D., Mayes, J., Grundfest-Broniatowski, S., and Henderson, J. M. Role of angiography and embolization for massive gastroduodenal hemorrhage. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 3: 61-5; discussion 66, 1999.
21. Cappell, M. S., and Friedel, D. Acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: endoscopic diagnosis and therapy. Med. Clin. North Am. 92: 511-50, vii-viii, 2008.
22. Chak, A., Cooper, G. S., Lloyd, L. E., Kolz, C. S., Barnhart, B. A., and Wong, R. C. Effectiveness of endoscopy in patients admitted to the intensive care unit with upper GI hemorrhage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 53: 6-13, 2001.
23. Huprich, J. E. Multi-phase CT enterography in obscure GI bleeding. Abdom. Imaging 34: 303-309, 2009.
24. Millward, S. F. ACR Appropriateness Criteria on treatment of acute nonvariceal gastrointestinal tract bleeding. J. Am. Coll. Radiol. 5: 550-554, 2008.
25. Carey, E. J., and Fleischer, D. E. Investigation of the small bowel in gastrointestinal bleeding--enteroscopy and capsule endoscopy. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 34: 719-734, 2005.
26. Chua, A. E., and Ridley, L. J. Diagnostic accuracy of CT angiography in acute gastrointestinal bleeding. J. Med. Imaging Radiat. Oncol. 52: 333-338, 2008.
27. Triester, S. L., Leighton, J. A., Leontiadis, G. I., Fleischer, D. E., Hara, A. K., Heigh, R. I., Shiff, A. D., and Sharma, V. K. A meta-analysis of the yield of capsule endoscopy compared to other diagnostic modalities in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100: 2407-2418, 2005.
28. Kamalaporn, P., Cho, S., Basset, N., Cirocco, M., May, G., Kortan, P., Kandel, G., and Marcon, N. Double-balloon enteroscopy following capsule endoscopy in the management of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: outcome of a combined approach. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 22: 491-495, 2008.
29. Hartmann, D., Schmidt, H., Bolz, G., Schilling, D., Kinzel, F., Eickhoff, A., Huschner, W., Moller, K., Jakobs, R., Reitzig, P., Weickert, U., Gellert, K., Schultz, H., Guenther, K., Hollerbuhl, H., Schoenleben, K., Schulz, H. J., and Riemann, J. F. A prospective two-center study comparing wireless capsule endoscopy with intraoperative enteroscopy in patients with obscure GI bleeding. Gastrointest. Endosc. 61: 826-832, 2005.
30. Pasha, S. F., Leighton, J. A., Das, A., Harrison, M. E., Decker, G. A., Fleischer, D. E., and Sharma, V. K. Double-balloon enteroscopy and capsule endoscopy have comparable diagnostic yield in small-bowel disease: a meta-analysis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6: 671-676, 2008.
31. Yamamoto, H., Kita, H., Sunada, K., Hayashi, Y., Sato, H., Yano, T., Iwamoto, M., Sekine, Y., Miyata, T., Kuno, A., Ajibe, H., Ido, K., and Sugano, K. Clinical outcomes of double-balloon endoscopy for the diagnosis and treatment of small-intestinal diseases. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2: 1010-1016, 2004.
32. Arakawa, D., Ohmiya, N., Nakamura, M., Honda, W., Shirai, O., Itoh, A., Hirooka, Y., Niwa, Y., Maeda, O., Ando, T., and Goto, H. Outcome after enteroscopy for patients with obscure GI bleeding: diagnostic comparison between double-balloon endoscopy and videocapsule endoscopy. Gastrointest. Endosc. 69: 866-874, 2009.
33. Ramchandani, M., Reddy, D. N., Gupta, R., Lakhtakia, S., Tandan, M., Rao, G. V., and Darisetty, S. Diagnostic yield and therapeutic impact of single-balloon enteroscopy: series of 106 cases. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 24: 1631-1638, 2009.
34. Upchurch, B. R., Sanaka, M. R., Lopez, A. R., and Vargo, J. J. The clinical utility of single-balloon enteroscopy: a single-center experience of 172 procedures. Gastrointest. Endosc. 71: 1218-1223, 2010.
35. Frantz, D. J., Dellon, E. S., Grimm, I. S., and Morgan, D. R. Single-balloon enteroscopy: results from an initial experience at a U.S. tertiarycare center. Gastrointest. Endosc. 72: 422-426, 2010.
36. May, A., Farber, M., Aschmoneit, I., Pohl, J., Manner, H., Lotterer, E., Moschler, O., Kunz, J., Gossner, L., Monkemuller, K., and Ell, C. Prospective multicenter trial comparing push-and-pull enteroscopy with the single- and double-balloon techniques in patients with small-bowel disorders. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 105: 575-581, 2010.
37. Aktas, H., de Ridder, L., Haringsma, J., Kuipers, E. J., and Mensink, P. B. Complications of single-balloon enteroscopy: a prospective evaluation of 166 procedures. Endoscopy 42: 365-368, 2010.
38. Bocker, U., Dinter, D., Litterer, C., Hummel, F., Knebel, P., Franke, A., Weiss, C., Singer, M. V., and Lohr, J. M. Comparison of magnetic resonance imaging and video capsule enteroscopy in diagnosing smallbowel pathology: localization-dependent diagnostic yield. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 45: 490-500, 2010.
39. Cellier, C. Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: role of videocapsule and double-balloon enteroscopy. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 22: 329-340, 2008.
40. Fireman, Z., and Friedman, S. Diagnostic yield of capsule endoscopy in obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Digestion 70: 201-206, 2004.
41. Hadithi, M., Heine, G. D., Jacobs, M. A., van Bodegraven, A. A., and Mulder, C. J. A prospective study comparing video capsule endoscopy with double-balloon enteroscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101: 52-57, 2006.
42. Jones, B. H., Fleischer, D. E., Sharma, V. K., Heigh, R. I., Shiff, A. D., Hernandez, J. L., and Leighton, J. A. Yield of repeat wireless video capsule endoscopy in patients with obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100: 1058-1064, 2005.
43. Neu, B., Ell, C., May, A., Schmid, E., Riemann, J. F., Hagenmuller, F., Keuchel, M., Soehendra, N., Seitz, U., Meining, A., and Rosch, T. Capsule endoscopy versus standard tests in influencing management of obscure digestive bleeding: results from a German multicenter trial. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100: 1736-1742, 2005.
44. Golder, S. K., Schreyer, A. G., Endlicher, E., Feuerbach, S., Scholmerich, J., Kullmann, F., Seitz, J., Rogler, G., and Herfarth, H. Comparison of capsule endoscopy and magnetic resonance (MR) enteroclysis in suspected small bowel disease. Int. J. Colorectal Dis. 21: 97-104, 2006.
45. Zuckerman, G. R., Prakash, C., Askin, M. P., and Lewis, B. S. AGA technical review on the evaluation and management of occult and obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterology 118: 201-221, 2000.
46. Dionisio, P. M., Gurudu, S. R., Leighton, J. A., Leontiadis, G. I., Fleischer, D. E., Hara, A. K., Heigh, R. I., Shiff, A. D., and Sharma, V. K. Capsule endoscopy has a significantly higher diagnostic yield in patients with suspected and established small-bowel Crohn's disease: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 105: 1240-8; quiz 1249, 2010.
47. Liangpunsakul, S., Chadalawada, V., Rex, D. K., Maglinte, D., and Lappas, J. Wireless capsule endoscopy detects small bowel ulcers in patients with normal results from state of the art enteroclysis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 98: 1295-1298, 2003.
48. Scheffel, H., Pfammatter, T., Wildi, S., Bauerfeind, P., Marincek, B., and Alkadhi, H. Acute gastrointestinal bleeding: detection of source and etiology with multi-detector-row CT. Eur. Radiol. 17: 1555-1565, 2007.
49. Jaeckle, T., Stuber, G., Hoff mann, M. H., Jeltsch, M., Schmitz, B. L., and Aschoff, A. J. Detection and localization of acute upper and lower gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding with arterial phase multi-detector row helical CT. Eur. Radiol. 18: 1406-1413, 2008.
50. Ko, H. S., Tesdal, K., Dominguez, E., Kaehler, G., Sadick, M., Duber, C., and Diehl, S. Localization of bleeding using 4-row detector-CT in patients with clinical signs of acute gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Rofo 177: 1649-1654, 2005.
51. Onoda, H., Shimizu, K., Washida, Y., Matsunaga, N., Higaki, S., Hashimoto, S., Matsunaga, T., and Sakaida, I. Usefulness of computed tomography enteroclysis in the intestinal tract. Jpn. J. Radiol. 28: 193-198, 2010.
52. Huprich, J. E., Fletcher, J. G., Alexander, J. A., Fidler, J. L., Burton, S. S., and McCullough, C. H. Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding: evaluation with 64-section multiphase CT enterography--initial experience. Radiology 246: 562-571, 2008.
53. Hara, A. K., Walker, F. B., Silva, A. C., and Leighton, J. A. Preliminary estimate of triphasic CT enterography performance in hemodynamically stable patients with suspected gastrointestinal bleeding. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 193: 1252-1260, 2009.
54. Frattaroli, F. M., Casciani, E., Spoletini, D., Polettini, E., Nunziale, A., Bertini, L., Vestri, A., Gualdi, G., and Pappalardo, G. Prospective study comparing multi-detector row CT and endoscopy in acute gastrointestinal bleeding. World J. Surg. 33: 2209-2217, 2009.
55. Yoon, W., Jeong, Y. Y., Shin, S. S., Lim, H. S., Song, S. G., Jang, N. G., Kim, J. K., and Kang, H. K. Acute massive gastrointestinal bleeding: detection and localization with arterial phase multi-detector row helical CT. Radiology 239: 160-167, 2006.
56. Jacobson, A. F., and Cerqueira, M. D. Prognostic significance of late imaging results in technetium-99m-labeled red blood cell gastrointestinal bleeding studies with early negative images. J. Nucl. Med. 33: 202-207, 1992.
57. Howarth, D. M. The role of nuclear medicine in the detection of acute gastrointestinal bleeding. Semin. Nucl. Med. 36: 133-146, 2006.
58. Gupta, S., Luna, E., Kingsley, S., Prince, M., and Herrera, N. Detection of gastrointestinal bleeding by radionuclide scintigraphy. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 79: 26-31, 1984.
59. Abdel-Dayem, H. M., Mahajan, K. K., Ericsson, S., Nawaz, K., Owunwanne, A., Kouris, K., Higazy, E., and Awdeh, M. Evaluation of technetium-99m DTPA for localization of site of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Clin. Nucl. Med. 11: 788-791, 1986.
60. Voeller, G. R., Bunch, G., and Britt, L. G. Use of technetium-labeled red blood cell scintigraphy in the detection and management of gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Surgery 110: 799-804, 1991.
61. Kurosawa, S., Kuwata, H., Kushibiki, K., Akimoto, K., Hashimoto, T., and Kojima, T. The value of RI scintigraphy and angiography in small intestinal bleeding--report of eight cases. Gastroenterol. Jpn. 26 Suppl 3: 129-132, 1991.
62. Dusold, R., Burke, K., Carpentier, W., and Dyck, W. P. The accuracy of technetium-99m-labeled red cell scintigraphy in localizing gastrointestinal bleeding. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 89: 345-348, 1994.
63. Howarth, D. M., Tang, K., and Lees, W. The clinical utility of nuclear medicine imaging for the detection of occult gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Nucl. Med. Commun. 23: 591-594, 2002.
64. O'Neill, B. B., Gosnell, J. E., Lull, R. J., Schecter, W. P., Koch, J., Halvorsen, R. A., and Harris, H. W. Cinematic nuclear scintigraphy reliably directs surgical intervention for patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. Arch. Surg. 135: 1076-81; discussion 1081-2, 2000.
65. Zuckerman, G. R., and Prakash, C. Acute lower intestinal bleeding: part I: clinical presentation and diagnosis. Gastrointest. Endosc. 48: 606-617, 1998.
66. Miller, M.,Jr, and Smith, T. P. Angiographic diagnosis and endovascular management of nonvariceal gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 34: 735-752, 2005.
67. Lim, J. K., and Ahmed, A. Endoscopic approach to the treatment of gastrointestinal bleeding. Tech. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 7: 123-129, 2004.
68. Kim, J. H., Shin, J. H., Yoon, H. K., Chae, E. Y., Myung, S. J., Ko, G. Y., Gwon, D. I., and Sung, K. B. Angiographically negative acute arterial upper and lower gastrointestinal bleeding: incidence, predictive factors, and clinical outcomes. Korean J. Radiol. 10: 384-390, 2009.
69. Loff roy, R., Rao, P., Ota, S., De Lin, M., Kwak, B. K., and Geschwind, J. F. Embolization of Acute Nonvariceal Upper Gastrointestinal Hemorrhage Resistant to Endoscopic Treatment: Results and Predictors of Recurrent Bleeding. Cardiovasc. Intervent. Radiol., 2010.
70. Gunderman, R., Leef, J., Ong, K., Reba, R., and Metz, C. Scintigraphic screening prior to visceral arteriography in acute lower gastrointestinal bleeding. J. Nucl. Med. 39: 1081-1083, 1998.
71. Duvnjak, S., and Andersen, P. E. The effect of transcatheter arterial embolisation for nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Dan. Med. Bull. 57: A4138, 2010.
72. Charbonnet, P., Toman, J., Buhler, L., Vermeulen, B., Morel, P., Becker, C. D., and Terrier, F. Treatment of gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Abdom. Imaging 30: 719-726, 2005.
73. Poultsides, G. A., Kim, C. J., Orlando, R.,3rd, Peros, G., Hallisey, M. J., and Vignati, P. V. Angiographic embolization for gastroduodenal hemorrhage: safety, efficacy, and predictors of outcome. Arch. Surg. 143: 457-461, 2008.
74. Ripoll, C., Banares, R., Beceiro, I., Menchen, P., Catalina, M. V., Echenagusia, A., and Turegano, F. Comparison of transcatheter arterial embolization and surgery for treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer after endoscopic treatment failure. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 15: 447-450, 2004.
75. Schenker, M. P., Duszak, R.,Jr, Soulen, M. C., Smith, K. P., Baum, R. A., Cope, C., Freiman, D. B., Roberts, D. A., and Shlansky-Goldberg, R. D. Upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage and transcatheter embolotherapy: clinical and technical factors impacting success and survival. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 12: 1263-1271, 2001.
76. Ryan, J. M., Key, S. M., Dumbleton, S. A., and Smith, T. P. Nonlocalized lower gastrointestinal bleeding: provocative bleeding studies with intraarterial tPA, heparin, and tolazoline. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 12: 1273-1277, 2001.
77. Kim, C. Y., Suhocki, P. V., Miller, M. J.,Jr, Khan, M., Janus, G., and Smith, T. P. Provocative mesenteric angiography for lower gastrointestinal hemorrhage: results from a single-institution study. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 21: 477-483, 2010.
78. Johnston, C., Tuite, D., Pritchard, R., Reynolds, J., McEniff, N., and Ryan, J. M. Use of provocative angiography to localize site in recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding. Cardiovasc. Intervent. Radiol. 30: 1042-1046, 2007.
79. Bloomfeld, R. S., Smith, T. P., Schneider, A. M., and Rockey, D. C. Provocative angiography in patients with gastrointestinal hemorrhage of obscure origin. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 95: 2807-2812, 2000.
80. Malden, E. S., Hicks, M. E., Royal, H. D., Aliperti, G., Allen, B. T., and Picus, D. Recurrent gastrointestinal bleeding: use of thrombolysis with anticoagulation in diagnosis. Radiology 207: 147-151, 1998.
81. Bakalar, R. S., Tourigny, P. R., Silverman, E. D., and Schub, R. O. Provocative red blood cell scintiscan in occult chronic gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Clin. Nucl. Med. 19: 945-948, 1994.
82. Anthony, S., Milburn, S., and Uberoi, R. Multi-detector CT: review of its use in acute GI haemorrhage. Clin. Radiol. 62: 938-949, 2007.
83. Stuber, T., Hoff mann, M. H., Stuber, G., Klass, O., Feuerlein, S., and Aschoff, A. J. Pitfalls in detection of acute gastrointestinal bleeding with multi-detector row helical CT. Abdom. Imaging 34: 476-482, 2009.
84. Kuhle, W. G., and Sheiman, R. G. Detection of active colonic hemorrhage with use of helical CT: findings in a swine model. Radiology 228: 743-752, 2003.
85. Hilfiker, P. R., Weishaupt, D., Kacl, G. M., Hetzer, F. H., Griff, M. D., Ruehm, S. G., and Debatin, J. F. Comparison of three dimensional magnetic resonance imaging in conjunction with a blood pool contrast agent and nuclear scintigraphy for the detection of experimentally induced gastrointestinal bleeding. Gut 45: 581-587, 1999.
86. Hilfiker, P. R., Zimmermann-Paul, G. G., Schmidt, M., Klotz, H. P., Kacl, G. M., and Debatin, J. F. Intestinal and peritoneal bleeding: detection with an intravascular contrast agent and fast three-dimensional MR imaging--preliminary experience from an experimental study. Radiology 209: 769-774, 1998.
87. Morcos, S. K. Review article: Acute serious and fatal reactions to contrast media: our current understanding. Br. J. Radiol. 78: 686-693, 2005.
88. Haveman, J. W., Gansevoort, R. T., Bongaerts, A. H., and Nijsten, M. W. Low incidence of nephropathy in surgical ICU patients receiving intravenous contrast: a retrospective analysis. Intensive Care Med. 32: 1199-1205, 2006.
89. Lencioni, R., Fattori, R., Morana, G., and Stacul, F. Contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing computed tomography (CONNECT) - a clinical problem in daily practice? A multicenter observational study. Acta Radiol. 51: 741-750, 2010.
90. Rashid, A. H., Brieva, J. L., and Stokes, B. Incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy in intensive care patients undergoing computerised tomography and prevalence of risk factors. Anaesth. Intensive Care 37: 968-975, 2009.
91. Pucelikova, T., Dangas, G., and Mehran, R. Contrast-induced nephropathy. Catheter. Cardiovasc. Interv. 71: 62-72, 2008.
92. Martin, D. R., Semelka, R. C., Chapman, A., Peters, H., Finn, P. J., Kalb, B., and Thomsen, H. Nephrogenic systemic fibrosis versus contrastinduced nephropathy: risks and benefits of contrast-enhanced MR and CT in renally impaired patients. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 30: 1350-1356, 2009.
93. Tsetis, D. Endovascular treatment of complications of femoral arterial access. Cardiovasc. Intervent. Radiol. 33: 457-468, 2010.
94. Li, A., Wong, C. S., Wong, M. K., Lee, C. M., and Au Yeung, M. C. Acute adverse reactions to magnetic resonance contrast media--gadolinium chelates. Br. J. Radiol. 79: 368-371, 2006.
95. Wang, C. L., Cohan, R. H., Ellis, J. H., Adusumilli, S., and Dunnick, N. R. Frequency, management, and outcome of extravasation of nonionic iodinated contrast medium in 69,657 intravenous injections. Radiology 243: 80-87, 2007.
96. Bellin, M. F., Jakobsen, J. A., Tomassin, I., Thomsen, H. S., Morcos, S. K., Thomsen, H. S., Morcos, S. K., Almen, T., Aspelin, P., Bellin, M. F., Clauss, W., Flaten, H., Grenier, N., Idee, J. M., Jakobsen, J. A., Krestin, G. P., Stacul, F., Webb, J. A., and Contrast Media Safety Committee Of The European Society Of Urogenital Radiology Contrast medium extravasation injury: guidelines for prevention and management. Eur. Radiol. 12: 2807-2812, 2002.
97. Tizon-Marcos, H., and Barbeau, G. R. Incidence of compartment syndrome of the arm in a large series of transradial approach for coronary procedures. J. Interv. Cardiol. 21: 380-384, 2008.
98. Fruhwirth, J., Pascher, O., Hauser, H., and Amann, W. Local vascular complications after iatrogenic femoral artery puncture. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 108: 196-200, 1996.
99. Meyerson, S. L., Feldman, T., Desai, T. R., Leef, J., Schwartz, L. B., and McKinsey, J. F. Angiographic access site complications in the era of arterial closure devices. Vasc. Endovascular Surg. 36: 137-144, 2002.