Therapeutic endoscopy for acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding

Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 214-229

  Cappell, Mitchell S ^a  

^a WILLIAM BEAUMONT HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; ALCOHOL; CYANOACRYLATE; FIBRIN GLUE; POLIDOCANOL; SCLEROSING AGENT; TETRADECYL SULFATE SODIUM; THROMBIN;

ARGON PLASMA COAGULATION; CAUTERIZATION; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; CLINICAL TRIAL; CLIP; CRYOTHERAPY; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INFLAMMATION; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INJURY; DISEASE COURSE; ELECTROCOAGULATION; ENDOSCOPIC BAND LIGATION; ENDOSCOPIC THERAPY; ESOPHAGOGASTRODUODENOSCOPY; GASTROINTESTINAL ENDOSCOPY; HUMAN; MINIMALLY INVASIVE PROCEDURE; NEODYMIUM LASER; PEPTIC ULCER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; THERMOCOAGULATION; UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING;

EMERGENCY TREATMENT; ENDOSCOPY, GASTROINTESTINAL; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; HEMOSTASIS, ENDOSCOPIC; HUMANS; PEPTIC ULCER; SCLEROTHERAPY;

EID: 77950866921     PISSN: 17595045     EISSN: 17595053     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrgastro.2010.24     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Lewis, J. D., Bilker, W. B., Brensinger, C., Farrar, J. T. & Strom, B. L. Hospitalization and mortality rates from peptic ulcer disease and GI bleeding in the 1990s: relationship to sales of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acid suppression medications. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97, 2540-2549 (2002).
2. Cappell, M. S. & Friedel, D. Initial management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding: from initial evaluation up to gastrointestinal endoscopy. Med. Clin. North Am. 92, 491-509 (2008).
3. Kovacs, T. O. Management of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Curr. Gastroenterol. Rep. 10, 535-542 (2008).
4. Cappell, M. S. Safety and efficacy of nasogastric intubation for gastrointestinal bleeding after myocardial infarction: an analysis of 125 patients at two tertiary cardiac referral hospitals. Dig. Dis. Sci. 50, 2063-2070 (2005).
5. Rudolph, S. J., Landsverk, B. K. & Freeman, M. L. Endotracheal intubation for airway protection during endoscopy for severe upper GI hemorrhage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 57, 58-61 (2003).
6. Bhatti, N., Amoateng-Adjepong, Y., Qamar, A. & Manthous, C. A. Myocardial infarction in critically ill patients presenting with gastrointestinal hemorrhage: retrospective analysis of risks and outcomes. Chest 114, 1137-1142 (1998).
7. Laine, L. & Cook, D. Endoscopic ligation compared with sclerotherapy for treatment of esophageal variceal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. 123, 280-287 (1995).
8. Olmos, J. A. et al. Long-term outcome of argon plasma ablation therapy for bleeding in 100 consecutive patients with colonic angiodysplasia. Dis. Colon Rectum 49, 1507-1516 (2006).
9. Kolkman, J. J. & Meuwissen, S. G. A review of bleeding peptic ulcer: a collaborative task of gastroenterologist and surgeon. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. Suppl. 218, 16-25 (1996).
10. Podilla, P. V. et al. Managing patients with acute nonvariceal gastrointestinal hemorrhage: development and effectiveness of a clinical care pathway. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 96, 208-219 (2001).
11. Romagnuolo, J., Barkun, A. N., Enns, R., Armstrong, D. & Gregor, J. Simple clinical predictors may obviate urgent endoscopy in patients with nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Arch. Intern. Med. 167, 265-270 (2007).
12. Adler, D. G. et al. ASGE guideline: the role of endoscopy in acute non-variceal upper-GI hemorrhage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 60, 497-504 (2004).
13. Chak, A. et al. Effectiveness of endoscopy in patients admitted to the intensive care unit with upper GI hemorrhage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 53, 6-13 (2001).
14. Cappell, M. S. & Friedel, D. Acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: endoscopic diagnosis and therapy. Med. Clin. North Am. 92, 511-550 (2008).
15. Elta, G. H. Acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Curr. Treat. Options Gastroenterol. 5, 147-152 (2002).
16. Jensen, D. M. & Machicado, G. A. Endoscopic hemostasis of ulcer hemorrhage with injection, thermal, and combination methods. Tech. Gastrointest. Endosc. 7, 124-131 (2005).
17. Klein, H. G., Spahn, D. R. & Carson, J. L. Red blood cell transfusion in clinical practice. Lancet 370, 415-426 (2007).
18. Hogue, C. W. Jr, Goodnough, L. T. & Monk, T. G. Preoperative myocardial ischemic episodes are related to hematocrit levels in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Transfusion 38, 924-931 (1998).
19. Cappell, M. S. A study of the syndrome of simultaneous acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding and myocardial infarction in 36 patients. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 90, 1444-1449 (1995).
20. Maltz, G. S., Siegel, J. E. & Carson, J. L. Hematologic management of gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 29, 169-187 (2000).
21. Contreras, M. Final statement from the consensus conference on platelet transfusion. Transfusion 38, 796-797 (1998). (Pubitemid 28381750)
22. McIntyre, L. A. et al. A survey of Canadian intensivists' resuscitation practices in early septic shock [abstract]. Crit. Care 11, R74 (2007).
23. Coffin, B. et al. Erythromycin improves the quality of EGD in patients with acute upper GI bleeding: a randomized controlled study. Gastrointest. Endosc. 56, 174-179 (2002).
24. Winstead, N. S. & Wilcox, C. M. Erythromycin prior to endoscopy for acute upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: a costeffectiveness analysis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 26, 1371-1377 (2007).
25. Leontiadis, G. I. et al. Systematic reviews of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of proton pump inhibitors in acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Health Technol. Assess. 11, 1-164 (2007).
26. Andriulli, A. et al. Proton-pump inhibitors and outcome of endoscopic hemostasis in bleeding peptic ulcers: a series of meta-analyses. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100, 207-219 (2005).
27. Green, F. W. Jr, Kaplan, M. M., Curtis, L. E. & Levine, P. H. Effect of acid and pepsin on blood coagulation and platelet aggregation: a possible contributor to prolonged gastrodudoenal mucosal hemorrhage. Gastroenterology 74, 38-43 (1978).
28. Lau, J. Y. et al. Omeprazole before endoscopy in patients with gastrointestinal bleeding. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 1631-1640 (2007).
29. Triandaf, I., Stanciu, C., Solomon, M., Grauer, M. & Untu, A. Continuous electrocardiographic monitoring during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy. Med. Interne 16, 43-45 (1978).
30. Dillon, K. A. Time out: an analysis. AORN J. 88, 437-442 (2008).
31. Isaacs, K. L. in Handbook of Gastroenterologic Procedures 4th edn (eds Drossman, D. A., Grimm, I. S. & Shaheen, N. J.) 30-37 (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005).
32. Waring, J. P. et al. Guidelines for conscious sedation and monitoring during gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gastrointest. Endosc. 58, 317-322 (2003).
33. Enestvedt, B. K., Gralnek, I. M., Mattek, N., Lieberman, D. A. & Eisen, G. An evaluation of endoscopic indications and findings related to nonvariceal upper-GI hemorrhage in a large multicenter consortium. Gastrointest. Endosc. 67, 422-429 (2008).
34. Jutabha, R. & Jensen, D. M. Management of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in the patient with chronic liver disease. Med. Clin. North Am. 80, 1035-1068 (1996).
35. Ciociola, A. A., McSorley, D. J., Turner, K., Sykes, D. & Palmer, J. B. Helicobacter pylori infection rates in duodenal ulcer patients in the United States may be lower than previously estimated. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94, 1834-1840 (1999).
36. Cappell, M. S. & Schein, J. R. Diagnosis and treatment of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-associated upper gastrointestinal toxicity. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 29, 97-124 (2000). (Pubitemid 30159926)
37. Kupfer, I., Cappell, M. S. & Tessler, S. Acute gastrointestinal bleeding in the intensive care unit: the intensivist's perspective. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 29, 275-307 (2000). (Pubitemid 30331657)
38. Kovacs, T. O. & Jensen, D. M. Endoscopic treatment of ulcer bleeding. Curr. Treat. Options Gastroenterol. 10, 143-148 (2007).
39. Freeman, M. L. Stigmata of hemorrhage in bleeding ulcers. Gastrointest. Endosc. Clin. N. Am. 7, 559-574 (1997).
40. Chen, J. J., Changchien, C. S., Lin, C. C. & Chang, W. C. The visible vessel on the bleeding gastric ulcer: an endoscopic-pathological study. Endoscopy 29, 821-826 (1997).
41. Beckly, D. E. & Casebow, M. P. Prediction of rebleeding from peptic ulcer experience with an endoscopic Doppler device. Gut 27, 96-99 (1986).
42. Kohler, B., Maier, M., Benz, C. & Riemann, J. F. Acute ulcer bleeding: a prospective randomized trial to compare Doppler and Forrest classifications in endoscopic diagnosis and therapy. Dig. Dis. Sci. 42, 1370-1374 (1997). (Pubitemid 27339347)
43. Wong, R. C. Endoscopic Doppler US probe for acute peptic ulcer hemorrhage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 60, 804-812 (2004). (Pubitemid 39550947)
44. Laine, L. & Petersen, W. L. Bleeding peptic ulcer. N. Engl. J. Med. 331, 717-727 (1994). (Pubitemid 24275746)
45. Leontiadis, G. I. & Howden, C. W. Pharmacologic treatment of peptic ulcer bleeding. Curr. Treat. Options Gastroenterol. 10, 134-142 (2007). (Pubitemid 46579161)
46. Savides, T. J. & Jensen, D. M. Therapeutic endoscopy for nonvariceal gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 29, 465-487 (2000). (Pubitemid 30331663)
47. Chung, S. C., Leung, J. W., Steele, R. J., Crofts, T. J. & Li, A. K. Endoscopic injection of adrenaline for actively bleeding ulcers: a randomized trial. Br. Med. J. 296, 1631-1633 (1988).
48. Chung, I. K. et al. Evaluation of endoscopic hemostasis in upper gastrointestinal bleeding related to Mallory-Weiss syndrome. Endoscopy 34, 474-479 (2002).
49. Barnert, J. & Messmann, H. Management of lower gastrointestinal tract bleeding. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 22, 295-312 (2008). (Pubitemid 351372998)
50. Jensen, D. M., Machicado, G. A., Jutabha, R. & Kovacs, T. O. Urgent colonoscopy for the diagnosis and treatment of severe diverticular hemorrhage. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 78-82 (2000). (Pubitemid 30036598)
51. Kahi, C. J. et al. Endoscopic therapy versus medical therapy for bleeding peptic ulcer with adherent clot: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 129, 855-862 (2005).
52. Cappell, M. S. The water jet deformation sign: a novel provocative maneuver to help diagnose an inverted diverticulum. South. Med. J. 102, 295-298 (2009).
53. Bini, E. J. & Cohen, J. Endoscopic treatment compared with medical therapy for the prevention of recurrent ulcer hemorrhage in patients with adherent clots. Gastrointest. Endosc. 58, 707-714 (2003). (Pubitemid 37370484)
54. Jensen, D. M., Kovacs, T. O., Jutabha, R. & Machicado, G. A. Randomized trial of medical or endoscopic therapy to prevent recurrent ulcer hemorrhage in patients with adherent clots. Gastroenterology 123, 407-413 (2002). (Pubitemid 34827184)
55. Bleau, B. L. et al. Recurrent bleeding from peptic ulcer associated with adherent clot: a randomized study comparing endoscopic treatment with medical therapy. Gastrointest. Endosc. 56, 1-6 (2002). (Pubitemid 41115042)
56. Kubba, A. K. & Palmer, K. R. Role of endoscopic injection therapy in the treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer. Br. J. Surg. 83, 461-468 (1996). (Pubitemid 26120766)
57. Chung, S. C., Leung, J. W. & Leung, F. W. Effect of submucosal epinephrine injection on local gastric blood flow: a study using laser Doppler flowmetry and reflectance spectrophotometry. Dig. Dis. Sci. 35, 1008-1011 (1990).
58. Cappel, M. S. Gastrointestinal bleeding associated with myocardial infarction. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 29, 423-444 (2000). (Pubitemid 30331661)
59. Cappell, M. S. & Iacovone, F. M. Jr. Safety and efficacy of esophagogastroduodenoscopy after myocardial infarction. Am. J. Med. 106, 29-35 (1999). (Pubitemid 29077139)
60. Gangarosa, L. M. in Handbook of Gastroenterologic Emergencies 4th edn (eds Drossman, D. A., Grimm, I. S. & Shaheen, N. J.) 87-92 (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005).
61. Calvet, X., Vergara, M., Brullet, E., Gisbert, J. P. & Campo, R. Addition of a second endoscopic treatment following epinephrine injection improves outcome in high-risk bleeding ulcers. Gastroenterology 126, 441-450 (2004). (Pubitemid 38182301)
62. Lin, H. J. et al. A prospective, randomized trial of large- versus small- volume endoscopic injection of epinephrine for peptic ulcer bleeding. Gastrointest. Endosc. 55, 615-619 (2002). (Pubitemid 41123460)
63. Chung, S. C. et al. Epinephrine or epinephrine plus alcohol for injection of bleeding ulcer: a prospective randomized trial. Gastrointest. Endosc. 43, 591-595 (1996). (Pubitemid 26192229)
64. Lopefrido, S., Patelli, G. & La Torre, L. Extensive necrosis of gastric mucosa following injection therapy of bleeding peptic ulcer. Endoscopy 22, 285-286 (1990).
65. Monkewich, G. J. & Haber, G. B. in Advanced Therapy in Gastroenterology and Liver Disease 5th edn (eds Bayless, T. M. & Diehl, A. M.) 167-177 (BC Decker, Hamilton, Ontario, 2005).
66. Liou, T. C., Chang, W. H., Wang, H. Y., Lin, S. C. & Shih, S. C. Large-volume endoscopic injection of epinephrine plus normal saline for peptic ulcer bleeding. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 22, 996-1002 (2007).
67. Benedetti, G., Sablich, R. & Lacchin, T. Endoscopic injection sclerotherapy in nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a comparative study of polidocanol and thrombin. Surg. Endosc. 5, 28-30 (1991).
68. Church, N. I. et al. A randomized trial comparing heater probe plus thrombin with heater probe plus placebo for bleeding peptic ulcer. Gastroenterology 125, 396-403 (2003). (Pubitemid 36929420)
69. Przemiosio, R. T., McNair, A. & Williams, R. Thrombin is effective in arresting bleeding from gastric variceal hemorrhage. Dig. Dis. Sci. 44, 778-781 (1999). (Pubitemid 29186325)
70. Lin, H. J. et al. Endoscopic injection with fibrin sealant versus epinephrine for arrest of peptic ulcer bleeding: a randomized, comparative trial. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 35, 218-221 (2002). (Pubitemid 34913087)
71. Pescatore, P. et al. Epinephrine versus epinephrine plus fibrin glue injection in peptic ulcer bleeding: a prospective randomized trial. Gastrointest. Endosc. 55, 348-353 (2002). (Pubitemid 41115146)
72. Rutgeerts, P. et al. Randomized trial of single and repeated fibrin glue compared with injection of polidocanol in treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer. Lancet 350, 692-696 (1997). (Pubitemid 27371167)
73. Song, S. Y., Chung, J. B., Moon, Y. M., Kang, J. K. & Parks, I. S. Comparison of the hemostatic effect of endoscopic injection with fibrin glue and hypertonic saline-epinephrine for peptic ulcer bleeding: a prospective randomized trial. Endoscopy 29, 827-833 (1997).
74. Capellan, O. & Hollander, J. E. Management of lacerations in the emergency department. Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. 21, 205-231 (2003). (Pubitemid 36268475)
75. Aabakken, L. Current endoscopic and pharmacological therapy of peptic ulcer bleeding. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 22, 243-259 (2008). (Pubitemid 351372994)
76. Lee, K. J., Kim, J. H., Hahm, K. B., Cho, S. W. & Park, Y. S. Randomized trial of N-butyl-2- cyanoacrylate compared with injection of hypertonic saline-epinephrine in the endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcers. Endoscopy 32, 505-511 (2000).
77. Fry, L. C., Neumann, H., Olano, C., Malfertheiner, P. & Mönkemüller, K. Efficacy, complications and clinical outcomes of endoscopic sclerotherapy with N-butyl-2- cyanoacrylate for bleeding gastric varices. Dig. Dis. 26, 300-303 (2008).
78. Schmidt, B. et al. Pulmonary vein isolation with high-intensity focused ultrasound: HIFU 12F study. Europace 11, 1281-1288 (2009).
79. Johnston, J. H., Jensen, D. M. & Auth, D. Experimental comparison of colonoscopic yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser, electrosurgery, and heater probe for canine gut arterial coagulation. Importance of vessel compression and avoidance of tissue erosion. Gastroenterology 92, 1101-1108 (1987). (Pubitemid 17055896)
80. Jensen, D. M. & Machicado, G. A. Contact thermal devices, endoscopic hemoclips, and epinephrine injection for ulcer hemorrhage. UpToDate [online], http://www.uptodate.com/ patients/content/topic.do? topicKey=∼XhLweWD0Cg0xX (2009).
81. Jaramillo, J. L., Carmona, C., Gálvez, C., de la Mata, M. & Miño, G. Efficacy of the heater probe in peptic ulcer with a non-bleeding visible vessel: a controlled, randomised study. Gut 34, 1502-1506 (1993). (Pubitemid 23341836)
82. Fullarton, G. M., Birnie, G. G., Macdonald, A. & Murray, W. R. Controlled trial of heater probe treatment in bleeding peptic ulcers. Br. J. Surg. 76, 541-544 (1989). (Pubitemid 19155722)
83. Laine, L. Multipolar electrocoagulation in the treatment of active upper gastrointestinal tract hemorrhage: a prospective controlled trial. N. Engl. J. Med. 316, 1613-1617 (1987). (Pubitemid 17082586)
84. Laine, L. Multipolar electrocoagulation in the treatment of peptic ulcers with nonbleeding visible vessels: a prospective, controlled trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 110, 510-514 (1989). (Pubitemid 19097318)
85. Cohen, J. Argon plasma coagulation in the management of gastrointestinal hemorrhage. UpToDate [online], http://www.uptodate.com/ patients/content/topic. do?topicKey=gi-dis/ 23289 (2009).
86. Skok, P., Krizman, I. & Skok, M. Argon plasma coagulation versus injection sclerotherapy in peptic ulcer hemorrhage: a prospective, controlled study. Hepatogastroenterology 51, 165-170 (2004). (Pubitemid 38283085)
87. Cappell, M. S. in Textbook of Gastroenterology 5th edn (eds Yamada, T. et al.) 2785-2810 (Wiley- Blackwell, Oxford, 2009).
88. Lecleire, S. et al. Bleeding gastric vascular ectasia treated by argon plasma coagulation: a comparison between patients with and without cirrhosis. Gastrointest. Endosc. 67, 219-225 (2008).
89. Karamanolis, G. et al. Argon plasma coagulation has a long-lasting therapeutic effect in patients with chronic radiation proctitis. Endoscopy 41, 529-531 (2009).
90. Kwan, V. et al. Argon plasma coagulation in the management of symptomatic gastrointestinal vascular lesions: experience in 100 consecutive patients with long-term follow-up. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 101, 58-63 (2006). (Pubitemid 43381709)
91. Herrera, S. et al. The beneficial effects of argon plasma coagulation in the management of different types of gastric vascular ectasia lesions in patients admitted for GI hemorrhage. Gastrointest. Endosc. 68, 440-446 (2008).
92. Gostout, C. J., Bowyer, B. A., Ahlquist, D. A., Viggiano, T. R. & Balm, R. K. Mucosal vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract: clinical observations and results of endoscopic neodymium: yttrium-aluminum- garnet laser therapy. Mayo Clin. Proc. 63, 993-1003 (1988).
93. Naveau, S., Aubert, A., Poynard, T. & Chaput, J. C. Long-term results of treatment of vascular malformations of the gastrointestinal tract by neodymium YAG laser photocoagulation. Dig. Dis. Sci. 35, 821-826 (1990). (Pubitemid 20216450)
94. Schulze, S. & Lyng, K. M. Palliation of rectosigmoid neoplasms with Nd:YAG laser treatment. Dis. Colon Rectum 37, 882-884 (1994). (Pubitemid 24281921)
95. Krejs, G. J. et al. Laser photocoagulation for the treatment of acute peptic-ulcer bleeding: a randomized controlled clinical trial. N. Engl. J. Med. 316, 1618-1621 (1987).
96. Jensen, D. M., Machicado, G. A. & Hirabayashi, K. Hemoclipping (CLIP) of chronic ulcers: a randomized prospective study of initial success, CLIP retention rates, and ulcer healing [abstract]. Gastrointest. Endosc. 61, 174 (2005).
97. Chen, C. Y. et al. Endoscopic hemostasis by using the TriClip for peptic ulcer hemorrhage: a pilot study. Gastrointest. Endosc. 67, 35-39 (2008).
98. Eriksson, L. G., Sundbom, M., Gustavsson, S. & Nyman, R. Endoscopic marking with a metallic clip facilitates transcatheter arterial embolization in upper peptic ulcer bleeding. J. Vasc. Interv. Radiol. 17, 959-964 (2006). (Pubitemid 44315471)
99. Ishiguro, T. & Nagawa, H. Inadvertent endoscopic application of a hemoclip to the splenic artery through a perforated gastric ulcer. Gastrointest. Endosc. 53, 378-379 (2001). (Pubitemid 32207334)
100. Barbagallo, F. et al. Successful endoscopic repair of an unusual colonic perforation following polypectomy using an endoclip device. World J. Gastroenterol. 13, 2889-2891 (2007). (Pubitemid 47007909)
101. Cho, I., Gaslightwala, I., Jensen, D. M. & Cohen, J. Endoclip therapy in the gastrointestinal tract: bleeding lesions and beyond. UpToDate [online], http:// www.utdol.com/patients/content/topic.do? topicKey=∼wzY.l31PtjL/cR (2009).
102. Chuttani, R. et al. Endoscopic clip application devices. Gastrointest. Endosc. 63, 746-750 (2006).
103. Shin, E. J. et al. Comparative study of endoscopic clips: duration of attachment at the site of clip application. Gastrointest. Endosc. 66, 757-761 (2007).
104. Gill, K. R., Pooley, R. A. & Wallace, M. B. Magnetic resonance imaging compatibility of endoclips. Gastrointest. Endosc. 70, 532-536 (2009).
105. Lin, H. J. et al. A prospective randomized trial of endoscopic hemoclip versus heater probe thermocoagulation for peptic ulcer bleeding. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97, 2250-2254 (2002).
106. Sung, J. J., Tsoi, K. K., Lai, L. H., Wu, J. C. & Lau, J. Y. Endoscopic clipping versus injection and thermo-coagulation in the treatment of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Gut 56, 1364-1373 (2007).
107. The North Italian Endoscopic Club for the Study and Treatment of Esophageal Varices. Prediction of the first variceal hemorrhage in patients with cirrhosis of the liver and esophageal varices: a prospective multicenter study. N. Engl. J. Med. 319, 983-989 (1988).
108. Garcia-Tsao, G., Sanyal, A. J., Grace, N. D. & Carey, W. Prevention and management of gastroesophageal varices and variceal hemorrhage in cirrhosis. Hepatology 46, 922-938 (2007). (Pubitemid 47436138)
109. Beppu, K. et al. Prediction of variceal hemorrhage by esophageal endoscopy. Gastrointest. Endosc. 27, 213-218 (1981). (Pubitemid 12242593)
110. Merkel, C. et al. Prognostic indicators of risk for first variceal bleeding in cirrhosis: a multicenter study in 711 patients to validate and improve the North Italian Endoscopic Club (NIEC) index. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 95, 2915-2920 (2000).
111. Bajaj, J. S. & Franco, J. Endoscopic band ligation of esophageal varices in patients on anticoagulation. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 42, 782-785 (2008).
112. Baron, T. H. & Wong Kee Song, L. M. Endoscopic variceal band ligation. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 104, 1083-1085 (2009).
113. Conway, J. D. & Shrestha, R. in Handbook of Gastroenterologic Procedures 4th edn (eds Drossman, D. A., Grimm, I. S. & Shahen, N. J.) 112-118 (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005).
114. Liu, J. et al. Endoscopic banding devices. Gastrointest. Endosc. 68, 217-221 (2008). (Pubitemid 352010297)
115. Kravetz, D. Prevention of recurrent esophageal variceal hemorrhage: review and current recommendations. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 41 (Suppl. 3), S318-S322 (2007). (Pubitemid 350059457)
116. Misra, S. P. et al. Endoscopic band ligation as salvage therapy in patients with bleeding peptic ulcers not responding to injection therapy. Endoscopy 37, 626-629 (2005).
117. Leclaire, S. et al. Endoscopic band ligation could decrease recurrent bleeding in Mallory- Weiss syndrome as compared to haemostasis by hemoclips plus epinephrine. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 30, 399-405 (2009).
118. Alis, H. et al. Is endoscopic band ligation superior to injection therapy for Dieulafoy lesion? Surg. Endosc. 23, 1465-1469 (2009).
119. Di Giorgio, P. et al. Detachable snare versus epinephrine injection in the prevention of postpolypectomy bleeding: a randomized and controlled study. Endoscopy 36, 860-863 (2004). (Pubitemid 39307134)
120. Cappell, M. S. & Abdullah, M. Management of gastrointestinal bleeding induced by gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 29, 125-167 (2000). (Pubitemid 30159927)
121. Bourke, M. J. & Williams, S. J. in Colonoscopy: Principles and Practice 2nd edn (eds Waye, J. D., Rex, D. K. & Williams, C. B.) 318-327 (Wiley- Blackwell, Chichester, 2009).
122. Abu-Hamda, E. M. & Baron, T. H. in Handbook of Gastroenterologic Emergencies 4th edn (eds Drossman, D. A., Grimm, I. S. & Shaheen, N. J.) 97-102 (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2005).
123. Katsinelos, P. et al. Endoloop-assisted polypectomy for large pedunculated colorectal polyps. Surg. Endosc. 20, 1257-1261 (2006). (Pubitemid 44259051)
124. Ljubicic, N. Endoscopic detachable mini-loop ligation for treatment of gastroduodenal angiodysplasia: case study of 11 patients with long-term follow-up. Gastrointest. Endosc. 59, 420-423 (2004). (Pubitemid 38337857)
125. Sung, J. J. & Chung, S. C. The use of detachable mini-loop for the treatment of esophageal varices. Gastrointest. Endosc. 47, 178-181 (1998). (Pubitemid 28096163)
126. Lo, C. C. et al. Comparison of hemostatic efficacy for epinephrine injection alone and injection combined with hemoclip therapy in treating high-risk bleeding ulcers. Gastrointest. Endosc. 63, 767-773 (2006).
127. Chung, S. S. et al. Randomised comparison between adrenaline injection alone and adrenaline injection plus heat probe treatment for actively bleeding ulcers. BMJ 314, 1307-1311 (1997).
128. Canady, J., Wiley, K. & Ravo, B. Argon plasma coagulation and the future applications for dualmode endoscopic probes. Rev. Gastroenterol. Disord. 6, 1-12 (2006).
129. Lau, J. Y. et al. Endoscopic retreatment compared with surgery in patients with recurrent bleeding after initial endoscopic control of bleeding ulcers. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 751-756 (1999).
130. Jensen, D. M. Management of severe ulcer rebleeding. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 799-801 (1999).
131. Milward, S. F. ACR appropriateness criteria on treatment of acute nonvariceal gastrointestinal tract bleeding. J. Am. Coll. Radiol. 5, 550-554 (2008).